i''l>Hfini*'^!r'' 




• s^ V 












ff^g^y% ^o«>*,.^>>o^ /^t^j^\^ c.«*,.^ 

v^^*/ ^V^^V*" ^V^^'V"^ ''"V* 





















0^ 0<>'' 






q*. *•* 










* ^0^' ^\.'•^3f??^^^*^ '^^ ■ -^^^^^^ -*'''^"* '•^^** ■ ^'^ 




^^ .o^^-^t, -J 






■: J'% '■ 















°V*^^'\^^\... V'*'^'*' A^^' 



^^.•l.!,:^* 






V ♦!•*'• €>* 












* 4? *^. • 








o,. * ♦TT^ • ♦ aO-* *-^'» rri'' ,** 



'*..i:i.'* 











<^^ '. 






^^ 










% 



<* 



^..i^:.'. 




^o 





















'^0' 

.-^q. 



"hV 


















^'^..^'^^ 






W.'^''\ 















.«:>ir» 



.V^. 



.<?)5/^. 




IRADE TESTS 

THE SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENT OF 
TRADE PROFICIENCY 



BY 

J. CROSBY CHAPMAN 

B. A. (Cantab.), D.Sc. (London), Ph.D. (Columbia) 

ASSOaATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, YALE UNIVERSITY; MEMBER OF THE 

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, SUB-COMMITTEE ON SELECTION OF MEN WITH SPECIAL 

skills; MEMBER OF THE COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL, ARMY 

TRADE TEST DIVISION; CONSULTANT TO THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF 

LABOR, TRADE INTERVIEW METHOD SECTION; CONSULTING EXPERT 

TO WAR DEPARTMENT, TESTS AND STANDARDS SECTION. 

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF 

DAISY ROGERS CHAPMAN, M. A. 




NEW YORK 

HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 

1921 



^x^ 



0^ 



o=rt^ 



COPYMGHT, 1921 

BY , 

Henry Holt and Company v 



FEB 11 192! \ 
0)aA605775 ^ 



TO 

THE MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION 
OF PERSONNEL, ASSOCIATED WITH THE ARMY TRADE 
TEST DIVISION, WHOSE CO-OPERATIVE WORK 
DEVELOPED THE INSTRUMENT DE- 
SCRIBED IN THIS BOOK 



vi ' PREFACE 

During the war, for obvious reasons, it was impossible to 
make public the results of the investigation, and to give back 
to industry the methods and the instruments, the development 
of which were so largely due to the unstinted help of employers 
and tradesmen alike. Large industrial organizations, trade 
unions, small shops and private individuals made great sacri- 
fices, both of time and of money, to further the trade test work. 
With the closing of hostilities it is possible to repay, in some 
small measure, the debt of gratitude which the Committee on 
Classification of Personnel owes to those who contributed so 
generously to the construction of the trade test instrument. 

If the ideas contained in this book serve to stimulate thought 
and to suggest a method of attack on some recurring problems 
of industrial management, the function of this book will have 
been fulfilled. The trade test movement is only in its infancy, 
but the methods that have been evolved will prove a firm 
foundation upon which an elaborate superstructure can safely 
be built. Under the normal conditions of peace, for the simple 
reason that it would have been impossible to obtain the assist- 
ance of the various industries, these foundations could not have 
been laid. If the principles of army trade test construction are 
adapted to the needs of the industrial plant, many of the prob- 
lems of selection, placement and training of skilled personnel 
will be more easily solved. 

The author is indebted not only to the large number of em- 
ployers and tradesmen who formed a vital part of the vast 
experiment, but to every member of the Committee on Classi- 
fication of Persoimel who was connected v/ith the Army Trade 
Test Division. This obligation is inadequately expressed in the 
dedication of the book. The author is no more responsible for 
the development of the underlying ideas than were many of his 
colleagues. The Trade Test was a cooperative product; no use- 



PREFACE vii 

ful purpose would be served by assigning individual credit for 
particular instruments. 

Without making any invidious distinctions, special mention 
may be made of two men who conceived and guided the move- 
ment from its beginnings. To outline the history of the work 
of Dr. E. L. Thorndike and Colonel Walter Dill Scott is to 
recapitulate the development of the application of psychology 
to this group of human problems. With these names the author 
wishes to couple that of Dr. W. V. Bingham, at whose sugges- 
tion this book was prepared. 

It is my pleasure to express my gratitude for the helpful 
suggestions made by Dr. D. E. Rice who read the manuscript. 

In the assembly of the contents of this book the author has 
been greatly aided by material furnished by the following: Mr. 
Roger Evans, Mr. A. W. Kornhauser, Dr. C. R. Mann, Mr. F. 
Meine, Mr. D. G. Paterson, Mr. J. A. Randall, Dr. E. S. 
Robinson, Dr. B. Ruml, Dr. L. L. Thurstone, Mr. H. A. Toops 
and Mr. Max Watson. 

I am under obligation to the Adjutant General of the United 
States Army for permission to reproduce a considerable body of 
material prepared by the Army Trade Test Division of the 
Committee on Classification of Personnel. 

In the writing of this book, I have been greatly helped by 
my wife. Her intimate association with the Army Trade Test 
Division from its inception, and her close contact with both 
the experimental work m the laboratory and the administra- 
tion of the tests within the industrial plants have made her 
contribution such that the only adequate method of recording 
this obligation has been the open sharing of authorship. 

J. Crosby Chapman 

War Department, 
Washington, D. C. 



CONTENTS 



(^^^j,jj Section I — Introduction p^qe 

I. The Nature of the Army Problem 3 

Section II — The Oral Trade Test 

II. The Construction of the Oral Trade Test 23 

{General Discussion) 

III. Construction of an Oral Trade Test 80 

{Detailed Procedure) 

IV. Administration and Scope of the Oral Trade Test. . . . 166 

Section III — The Picture Trade Test 

V. The Picture Trade Test Method 185 

Section IV — The Performance Trade Test 

VI. The General Nature of the Performance Test Method. 259 

VII. The Construction of a Performance Test 272 

Section V — A Written Group Trade Test 

VIII. The Written Group Trade Test Method 337 

Section VI — The Place of the Trade Test in Industry 
IX. The Analogy between the Army and the Industrial 

Employment Problem , 347 

X. Problem of Occupational Analysis 367 

XL What the Trade Test Is Not 371 

XII. The Use of the Various Types of Trade Tests 376 

XIII. The Adaptation of Trade Test Methods to the Training 

OF Employees 386 

XIV. The Installation of Trade Tests 413 

XV. Some Further Applications of Trade Test Methods . . . 420 

Bibliography 431 

Index .433 



SECTION I 
INTRODUCTION 



TRADE TESTS 

CHAPTER I 

THE NATURE OF THE ARMY PROBLEM 

The Necessity for More Exact Knowledge of the Trade 
Abilities of Workmen 

When the scale of production, which the necessities of the 
world make imperative, is begun, industry will be in desper- 
ate need of more men, and particularly skilled men. Without 
the strictest economy in the use of human resources, the process 
of adjustment may be indefinitely prolonged. The decline in the 
quantity of labor available must eventually mean the intro- 
duction of a more effective method of using the knowledge and 
skill of each man employed. 

Industry has long been dissatisfied with the manner in which 
it appraises the skill and knowledge of its human material. 
Upon these more than on any other factors depend such ques- 
tions as the selection of men, placement of men, transfer of men 
and promotion of men. If there is waste in any of these 
processes, the result is bound to tell on production, which under 
present conditions is the final gauge of success. To those who 
have been handling personnel it has long been apparent that 
what is urgently required is more detailed information con- 
cerning the attainments of each employee or prospective em- 
ployee. Until devices have been evolved which will secure 

3 



4 TRADE TESTS 

such information we can expect a continuance of the enormous 
waste which the more far-seeing employers of to-day are at- 
tempting to minimize. Industry has reaHzed the unsatisfactory 
state of affairs, but it has been content, in fact forced, to muddle 
through, substituting the use of greater quantities of labor, 
wrongly selected and poorly placed, for a less quantity of labor, 
scientifically selected and strategically placed. Increasing per- 
sonnel, however expensive the procedure, is the only possible 
solution, unless industry is willing to make radical alterations 
in the methods of hiring, assigning, transferring and training 
men. To effect these alterations the most careful attention 
will have to be given to the related problem of training the 
employee and of measuring objectively the degree of his pro- 
ficiency. Maximum production goes hand in hand with correct 
placement. 

Strict economy, while necessary at the present moment, was 
of overwhelming importance during the war, when the country 
was putting vast numbers of nien into the field. The strategic 
use of personnel, at this period, translated itself into losses 
minimized and battles won. The exigencies of the personnel 
situation, within the army, forced a crisis which called into 
existence a new method of attacking an old problem. As 
already pointed out, until the crisis arose, old methods and 
old devices were considered ^'good enough." Blinding its eyes 
to its own wasteful methods, industry struggled on as best it 
could. In spite of alarming increases in labor turnover, the 
pressure of production prevented serious scientific experimenta- 
tion in the field of employment methods. In the handling of 
personnel in the army the wastefulness and inefficiency of the 
old devices for determining trade skill and status caused such 
enormous inconvenience and delay that new instruments had 
to be devised to meet the problem, ^ These instruments, forged 



NATURE OF THE ARMY PROBLEM 5 

in the heat of conflict for the exclusive use of the army, are now 
available for general service. 

The Army Situation with Relation to Skilled Personnel 

While the ordinary commercial industry, under normal con- 
ditions, is able to make up for mistakes in the selection of its 
personnel by hiring more personnel, the army at the outbreak 
of the war, and more particularly later, was not in position to 
apply this easy but highly wasteful remedy. Man power for 
the army was by no means inexhaustible, for industry was at 
the same time sorely pressed to maintain its production. It 
was incumbent upon the army to use the knowledge and skill 
of each member to the best advantage, for the industrial situa- 
tion was such that the number of skilled men the army could 
call upon was strictly limited. It was under this urgent neces- 
sity that the army in 191 7 turned to industry to see if any 
methods in use at that time for determining the skill of work- 
men would help it to meet its placement problems. 

To appreciate the difficulties of the situation it will be neces- 
sary to consider briefly how the ways of handling personnel in 
the army differed from those found in the ordinary industrial 
plants. The most outstanding factors were the largeness of the 
enterprise and the speed with which the whole must be set in 
operation. The army, within itself and for its own specific 
purposes, required men of all degrees of skill in several hun- 
dred fairly definite occupations. To train for a large number of 
these occupations was wholly out of the question. To train 
for any of them, when skilled men were already present in the 
army, was a course involving great waste and delay. To be 
engaged in training men to do general automobile repair, for 
example, while first-rate auto mechanics were learning to drill 
and dig trenches, was clearly absurd, and yet exactly this situa- 



6 TRADE TESTS 

tion was inevitable unless there was at hand some ready method 
of determining the trade ability of each man entering or already 
enrolled in the army. 

The first and most rapid method of getting information with 
regard to the trade ability of each recruit was to interview him 
and make a note or check on the qualification card, later de- 
scribed, which listed the larger nimiber of important army 
occupations. The number of years during which the particular 
trade had been followed gave significant information and an 
approximate idea of the degree of proficiency. There were, 
however, two factors which minimized greatly the reliability 
of this trade qualification record. 

In the first place the bluffer of commerce did not seem to 
change his spots when he entered' the army. Many men who 
in fact had no significant trade experience claimed to be experts, 
while others, without conscious deception, either overestimated 
or underestimated their ability, thereby making their records of 
little value. In the first rush it was necessary to fill the requisi- 
tions for men as they came in, using at its face value the infor- 
mation supplied by the qualification card. \Mien these men 
were assigned to active ser\ace, the inadequacy of the method 
became patent. After having been shipped to France on the 
basis of these records, men failed when confronted with the 
jobs in those trades in which in the camps they had claimed 
skill. On investigation of these cases many men openly con- 
fessed that they had made misstatements as to their ability, 
and others admitted that they had grossly overestimated the 
ability which they possessed. Herein lay one of the great dif- 
ferences between conditions in the army and those in the indus- 
trial plant. In the latter, if a wrong assignment is made, the 
preliminary trial, usually coming immediately after the inter- 
view, reveals the fact, though often not without a considerable 



NATURE OF THE ARMY PROBLEM 7 

waste of time as well as of material. Into each camp there 
came a constant stream of men skilled in all varieties of trades. 
When it is remembered that the services of men representing 
not less than four hundred distinct occupations were required 
for the successful operation of the army, it will be seen how 
impossible it was to have in every center a body of men who 
could, of their own personal knowledge, estimate trade profi- 
ciency in this great variety of occupations. It would have re- 
quired an army of experts who were needed for purposes other 
than that of merely testing and examining an occasional recruit 
who claimed trade ability. In commercial industries the man 
who hires usually has some acquaintance with the trades which 
he is handling; if not, he is at least able to refer the applicant 
to the foreman or to others who have such acquaintance. The 
army, handicapped in this respect, demanded a method which 
would enable, if necessary, a single examiner with assistants to 
determine and rate the trade ability in each of the four hundred 
trades. 

Another factor which rendered the usual industrial method 
of interview by a foreman or skilled man very unsatisfactory 
when used in the army was the variation in judgment between 
different interviewers as to what constituted trade skill. One 
examiner was willing to call a man a tradesman if he showed 
the least knowledge of the trade, whereas another would refuse 
to classify a man as such unless he was familiar with all branches 
of the work. The result was that ratings on the qualification 
cards did not have the same meaning from camp to camp, and 
even varied within the same camp where different interviewers 
examined for the same trade. 

Let us briefly summarize the demands which the army made 
on the methods devised for measuring trade ability. The more 
important of these are listed below: 



8 TRADE TESTS 

(i) The methods must be applicable to all trades. 

(2) The methods must be such that they can be employed by 

an intelligent examiner who has no personal knowledge 
of the trade. 

(3) The methods must yield a rating of a man which is in- 

dependent of the examiner's individual judgment, in 
other words, the test must be objective and not sub- 
jective. 

(4) The methods must be rapid, and in most cases must not 

require the use of tools or apparatus. 

These were the major requirements. Several minor details 
which had to be borne in mind by those who attempted the 
solution of the problem need not be considered here. 

It was to meet these rather exacting requirements that the 
so-called trade test was devised. The general theme of the 
whole book must serve as the answer to the question: ''What 
is a trade test?" It seems advisable, however, before proceed- 
ing further, to give a preliminary or partial definition of this 
term. Essentially, the trade test is a measuring rod which can 
be used without trade knowledge on the part of the examiner, 
for rating in objective, quantitative terms the degree of trade 
ability possessed by the person under examination. In many 
scientific fields we are familiar wdth the use of accurate measur- 
ing devices. The whole of physics depends on standard scales 
for measuring mass, length, and time and other quantities from 
which these are derived. Thus the micrometer of the machinist 
is merely a refined method of testing length; the ammeter of 
the electrician merely serves to measure the amount of current. 
These sciences have passed through the stage where a mere 
qualitative judgment is sufficient; we refuse to accept esti- 
mates based on the eye, the touch and other equally variable 
factors. If ui dealing with physical materials we demand accu- 



NATURE OF THE ARMY PROBLEM 9 

rate measurements to eliminate waste, even more in the case of 
human material we require for effective use all the measuring 
rods which science can devise. 

Objective versus Subjective Ratings 

The idea of measuring such a human trait as trade ability 
by an objective scale is of such recent date that it calls for some 
discussion. We have become so accustomed to such phrases as 
excellent workmen, good workmen, average workmen, poor work- 
men, that we are tempted to believe that the terms, "good," 
"average," "poor," stand for something quite definite in the 
sense that ten pounds, six pounds, and four pounds stand for 
definite amounts of weight. When we analyze the meaning 
of these terms we find that the designation "good," used by 
different individuals may mean very different degrees of trade 
ability; that is, the judgment is subjective. In opposition to 
these subjective judgments, which depend almost entirely upon 
the opinion of the individual? we get such measures as we have 
mentioned, where the* unit employed is a pound or a similar 
standardized unit upon which all are agreed. The distinction 
between the subjective scale, which rates in terms of excellent, 
good, poor, bad, and the objective scale, which expresses ability 
in terms that are constant in value and universally understood, 
cannot be too clearly made. In the case of a perfectly objective 
scale all competent persons agree, while in the case of a perfectly 
subjective scale, all competent persons disagree, save by chance. 

From certain portions of the account here given it may seem 
to the nonscientific reader that a disproportionate amount of 
time and energy has been spent in securing refinements of this 
scientific measuring-rod. This, however, is the price which 
must be paid for accurate results. If such time and energy are 
not given, the product will fail to stand up under the strain to 



10 TRADE TESTS 

which it is subjected in practice. It would have been possible 
in a very short time to construct scales for measuruig trade 
ability which would have worked fairly well and given moder- 
ately accurate results. Under many conditions of industry 
nothing more than a rough measurement of trade ability is neces- 
sary. The care which should be given to the construction of a 
trade test depends wholly on the decisions which are to be made 
therefrom. In the army the decisions made were most impor- 
tant, and often involved the shipment of a tradesman to France. 
Under these conditions an accurate measuring instrument was 
a vital necessity. In industry, where much less important 
decisions are made, where the decision is distinctly tentative, 
and where an immediate try-out is often possible, it may well 
be that no such refinement in measurement is desirable. In 
this respect, as in many others which will be mentioned later, 
the army method is not immediately applicable in its present 
form to use in industry. The army methods were devised to 
meet a very specihc situation; where conditions change as they 
must from industry to industry, and frohi time to time, these 
methods will have to be adapted to the particular situation. 
There is, however, not the slightest doubt that the experimental 
methods which under very favorable conditions were given 
such extensive try-out by the army have yielded results and 
de\dces which either in their present form or in a slightly adapted 
form, may be used to advantage in industry in the immediate 
future. Long experience has taught mankind to be extremely 
skeptical when simple devices are offered as solutions for per- 
plexing problems. Particularly in this true when the purpose 
of the device is to measure some human achievement or quality. 
While there is in every one some remnant of credulity upon 
which the soothsayer, the fortune teller, the character analyst 
and the so-called ''consulting psychologist" may fatten, there 



NATURE OF THE ARMY PROBLEM 11 

have been in industry, within recent years, so many attempts 
at exploitation of this sort that it is difficult at times to get a 
fair hearing even for most rigid scientific methods. 

Not only must any new idea meet the skepticism which has 
been thus created, but it must also combat the reasonably 
cautious conservatism of those already engaged in practical 
work. In attempting to present the ideas contained in this 
book no claim is made that the instruments which have been 
devised can be immediately applied to all phases of employment 
work involving trade ability, but it is claimed that devices have 
been constructed and have been successfully used for measuring 
such ability under particular conditions. It is further claimed 
that even where the devices as they now exist are not directly 
applicable, the principles upon which they are based can be 
used with great profit in the solution of a large number of prob- 
lems in connection with the process of selecting and measuring 
skilled personnel. The value of a scientific instrument or 
method must be gauged by its performance. The task of the 
writer who undertakes to explain the instrument is merely one 
of careful description. If in his enthusiasm he makes extrava- 
gant claims, he at once ceases to be a scientist and degenerates 
into a propagandist. Great care will be taken to avoid this 
danger; both the merits and defects of the method will be 
pointed out, for a clear recognition of its short-comings affords 
the best assurance of its successful application. 

The Meaning of Terms 

) Some account of the way in which the words trade and ability 
are used will clarify our thought and simplify the presentation. 
By trade, as used in this book, we shall mean what is more 
commonly designated as ''occupation"; thus within trade we 
shall include such diverse callings as those of surveyor, cook, 



12 TRADE TESTS 

turret lathe operator, statistician, typist. This is perhaps at 
variance with the ordinary usage of the term, which emphasizes 
the opposition to a profession. The chief restriction on the 
meaning of the term "occupation" as here used, is that it does 
not include activities primarily concerned with the exchange 
of goods; by occupation we mean rather a calling in which it is 
necessary to acquire facility in the use of certain tools, instru- 
ments and machines in order to produce certain physical results. 
A further restriction on the use of "occupation" is that this 
acquired facility or skill is for the most part considered to be a 
combination of a complex set of intellectual and muscular co- 
ordinations, such as is commonly found in carpentry, interior 
wiring, auto-repairing, telephone repair, etc., and not to be 
made up of a very narrow range of simple and oft-repeated 
coordinations such as are characteristic of the standardized 
operations of much of the highly specialized factory production. 
If the reader will bear in mind this inclusive meaning of the 
term trade, it will save the use of many descriptive terms, such 
as "occupational test" and "professional test," which would 
complicate the presentation. 

The word "ability" is used to signify the power which a 
tradesman has of meeting the varied situations which arise 
within his occupation. The term "trade ability," therefore, 
signifies what is commonly meant by a man's competency to 
follow his trade, occupation or profession. In more scientific 
language it refers to any complex set of coordinations which 
are acquired in a fairly definite order and which characterize all 
men skilled in a given trade, thereby segregating them as a 
homogeneous group. The reader must not confuse this with 
the ability to answer certain questions or perform certain 
tasks, which is measured only in order to give an indication of 
true trade ability according to the above definition. 



NATURE OF THE ARMY PROBLEM 13 

Existing Industrial Methods of Sectoring Information 
Concerning Skill of Tradesmen 

It has already been said that any new method is merely a 
skilful combination of devices which have been employed 
before. When a small subcommittee of the Committee on 
Classification of Personnel met in order to discuss ways and 
means of solving this new problem which army conditions had 
presented, the first inquiry that was made was relative to the 
practice that then existed in the large industrial plants. In 
these plants the conditions more closely paralleled those of 
the army; in many cases there was a central office where all 
matters of employment and selection were handled. The 
methods used in these central offices were found to be very 
diverse. In some cases the men in charge of the employment 
offices, w^ho did the interviewing, were mere clerks who made 
no attempt to go back of the statements of the applicants but 
merely referred the latter to the various foremen in the plant. 
When so referred to the foreman, three forms of procedure are 
commonly followed. The first consists of a few questions rela- 
tive to the trade. In the second the applicant is given some 
simple job to perform and his suitability is determined by his 
skill in doing the job. The third method, which is by far the 
most comnion, consists in trying out the applicant on the actual 
job which later he is to perform, and for employment in which 
he is being considered. Although these three methods require 
an expert tradesman as the examiner, the second procedure, 
that of assigning a simple job to the applicant, was distinctively 
suggestive. It subsequently developed into the performance 
trade test which will be described later. These methods the 
author, from personal experience, knows to be both uneconomi- 
cal for the plant and unjust to the applicant. 



14 TRADE TESTS 

Another method which has also been extensively used, es- 
pecially in the more progressive plants, has been to have in 
the employment office, or to release for certain hours of the 
day for work in the employment office, skilled workmen repre- 
senting the various trades in w^hich hiring takes place. It is the 
business of these skilled tradesmen to interview all applicants 
claiming trade ability. The interview covers the common 
ground of type of work done, length of experience, places where 
employed, etc. In many cases, in order to verify the statements 
of the applicant, specific trade questions are asked. 

It may be well to discuss some of the disadvantages of this 
common method. In the first place, the men who are doing 
the interviewing are chosen, usually, not because they are 
skilled interviewers, but rather on account of their skill in their 
own trade. For this reason their attitude toward the men often 
results in failure to extract the knowledge which the applicant 
possesses. Secondly, the questions asked by the interviewer are 
frequently catch questions or else questions involving a knowl- 
edge of a very detailed and perhaps local process; frequently 
found also are questions which can be answered by a mere yes 
or no, without signifying any trade ability on the part of the 
applicant, who merely guesses. The questions upon which the 
"hiring and firing" depends are rarely clearly formulated, and 
in no cases are definite marks given for definite answers. In 
many cases which came under the writer's notice the examiners 
seemed more eager to show their own superiority than to deter- 
mine the trade ability of the applicant. As a crude method of 
distinguishing the skilled workman from the blufier this pro- 
cedure, generally speaking, fulfills its function. It was, how- 
ever, of no service from the standpoint of the army problem. 
Its greatest disadvantage was the fact that it required the 
services of skilled tradesmen as interviewers. The second dis- 



NATURE OF THE ARMY PROBLEM 15 

advantage was that the ratings given, on account of the lack of 
standardization of questions and answers, were essentially sub- 
jective and not objective. The first disadvantage in itself ruled 
out the possibility of its use in army camps. Skilled workmen 
were required for skilled work; they could not possibly be spared 
in such numbers as the above method would demand, merely 
to serve as a selective or placement force. 

Another method used, though not so extensively, in employ- 
ment bureaus and large plants was to have, in the main, trained 
clerical assistants in the employment office, but the interviewing 
force, by contact with foremen, was given facilities to discover 
the nature of the various occupations and the general processes 
involved. In some few cases the interviewer secured from the 
foreman a certain number of questions which might reasonably 
be supposed to test trade ability. Sometimes the interviewer 
knew enough about the trade to tell whether the answer given 
to the question was correct or not, but often he merely judged 
by the general attitude of the applicant and his readiness to 
reply, the extent to which he was familiar with trade terms and 
trade processes. Such questions as ''Can you read a mic?" 
and "Are you acquainted with a blue print?" "What make of 
machines have you worked on?" "What is a template?" 
"What is a burring machine?" etc., may be taken as ex- 
amples. The disadvantages of this type of question are appar- 
ent. In the first place, the questions asked in most cases do 
not call for any definite or detailed information. Any intelli- 
gent tradesman who has the least acquaintance with his trade 
can satisfactorily fulfill the requirements of many examinations 
of this type. A machinist's apprentice could answer the ques- 
tions in the majority of cases quite as well as the expert me- 
chanic. Blufhng is at a premium, for often the men know that 
the interviewer has no definite information with regard to the 



16 TRADE TESTS 

trade. Another important, defect from the standpoint of army 
demands was the lack of a definite objective rating at the end 
of the examination. Although it was distinctly likely that this 
method would distinguish the novice from the skilled workman, 
the probability that it would differentiate between the two- 
year apprentice, the ordinary journeyman and the skilled expert 
was remote. Even if in some exceptional cases it did serve to 
distinguish between these types, there was no definite mark 
which could be given that would mean the same thing to all 
persons, in all places, and at all times. 

This general method, while not suited immediately to the 
army requirements because of its vagueness, possessed certain 
characteristics which were most suggestive to those studying 
the ways and means whereby certain phases of the selective 
work of the army could be met. Its most important feature 
was the fact that it did not require skilled tradesmen as inter- 
viewers. As will be seen later, this method of examination, 
when greatly modified and systematized, developed into the 
oral trade test. 

The Adaptation of These Methods 

The problem therefore that confronted the army was to 
adapt these methods to meet the requirements that have been 
cited. The first essential was that the method be such that it 
should not require a skilled tradesman as an examiner, and the 
other equally important consideration was that the examina- 
tion or interview should yield a definite objective rating. 

During the five years prior to 191 7, a great deal of work had 
been done in connection with a somewhat related educational 
problem. Just as it is necessary for industry to have rapid and 
accurate methods of determining the skill and knowledge of 
its workmen, so it is equally necessary for the school, if it is 



NATURE OF THE ARMY PROBLEM 17 

to be efficient, to have methods of determining the skill and 
knowledge of its pupils. All instruction exists to produce 
changes in those taught. The success or failure of this instruc- 
tion is measured by the rate at which skill is acquired or infor- 
mation assimilated. To place and direct each pupil to the 
best advantage and to have some check on the instruction de- 
mands the construction of objective scales or tests for school 
subjects. Such objective tests have been worked out in many 
of the common school branches, of which the most important 
are those in writing, reading, and arithmetic. Less successful 
attempts have been made to measure manual dexterity and 
other school factors more nearly related to trade skill. While 
some of these scales are far from satisfactory, the point of 
interest in connection with the army problem is that certain 
well-known methods have been evolved which eliminated the 
subjective factor in the estimation of abilities. No longer do 
we need to use the subjective terms excellent, good, fair, poor 
with regard to a specimen of writing; it is possible to state that 
its quality is 14, 13 or 11 on an objective scale of achievement. 
Here the qualities 14, 13 or 11 are not arbitrary, but are as 
clearly defined and have as precise meanings as the marks of a 
ruler. The way in which these methods were evolved from 
physics and psychology and applied to these particular problems 
cannot be treated here. The field of educational measurements 
made the maximum contribution. In fact the trade test move- 
ment is virtually the story of the refinement of the ordinary 
selective methods of industry by application of the statistical 
and other devices which have grown up largely within the realm 
of educational measurements. 

If we leave for one moment the army requirements that the test 
be such that it can be administered by a non tradesman, there 
are two fundamental criteria which a trade test must satisfy: 



18 TRADE JESTS 

(i) It must differentiate between men of varying trade abili- 
ties and know' edge. 

(2) Its ratings must be objective. 
No test can be considered satisfactory unless, in the first place, 
it distinguishes the person with no specific trade experience, 
whom we may call the novice, from the apprentice who has 
spent some little time in his trade. It must also distinguish 
the ordinary apprentice or learner or helper from the average 
skilled workman. In addition, if the test is to have its maxi- 
mum usefulness, it should also enable us to differentiate the 
ordinary tradesman from the workman who is exceptionally 
skilled or has had exceptional experience. The ability which 
a test has to make these distinctions may be called its differen- 
tiating power. Whenever the word /differentiating" is used, 
we must bear in mind that it is a relative term. When we say 
that a trade test must differentiate, all that is implied is that 
it must distinguish between individuals who differ by a certain 
amount in trade ability. Thus, for example, a test may well 
serve to differentiate between the individual who has one year's 
trade experience and the individual who has five years' trade 
experience, but it may be expected to fail to differentiate be- 
tween the individual who has had eighteen months and another 
who has completed nineteen months. We shall, therefore, find 
it necessary at a later stage to define with great exactness pre- 
cisely the groups between which we expect the tests to distin- 
guish. Any method of testing ability which will make this 
differentiation between the novice, apprentice, journeyman and 
expert has the widest application in the realms of selection and 
promotion within the industry. 

The second requirement, which we shall refer to as that of 
objectivity, is so closely related to the first that it is only neces- 
sary to consider them separately chiefly for convenience in 



NATURE OF THE ARMY PROBLEM 19 

thought. Unless a test is objective, the rating which is given 
will vary from examiner to examiner. The ratings which are 
made at one time and at one place will not correspond with the 
ratings at another time and place. Thus while the measuring 
rod may be used to divide men roughly into three classes — 
tall, medium and short — thereby fulfilling the differentiating 
function, much of the advantage of the measurement is lost 
unless for each individual or group of individuals the specific 
measurements are given and are recorded in units or in terms 
upon which all are agreed. 

Outline 

With this general introduction we are in a position to discuss 
the various types of trade test which were employed in the 
army. The succeeding chapters will, therefore, deal in order 
with 

(i) Oral trade test methods , 

(2) Picture trade test methods / 

(3) Performance trade test methods 

(4) Written trade test methods 

An attempt will be made to show the gradual development 
of technique in the construction and use of each of these instru- 
ments. The application of trade test methods, within the indus- 
trial field, to such problems of personnel as selecting, placing, 
transferring and promoting will be discussed in later chapters. 



SECTION II 
THE ORAL TRADE TEST 



/ 



CHAPTER II 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ORAL TRADE TEST 

(General Discussion) 

Fundamental Assumption Underlying the Oral Question 
Method 

The oral question is a time honored method of testing ability, 
particularly when this ability is of an informational kind. 

If this ability consisted of nothing more than the possession 
of certain information in regard to the trade, the oral or written 
question would be the obvioas method of measuring proficiency. 
But the simplest analysis of trade ability shows that it consists 
of two factors, which for the purposes of emphasis can be sep- 
arated. These are: 

(i) Certain skill or technique in performing operations. 
(2) Certain knowledge or information. 

The two are closely interrelated; without a considerable 
amount of information with regard to the trade, the perform- 
ance of many of its operations is out of the question; likewise, 
assuming the presence of certain information, only the mini- 
mum of manual dexterity is required to perform the operation. 

If there is a very close correlation between degree of skill 
and amount of information possessed, then an examination 
which would test the amount of knowledge of the trade, would 
serve also as an indication of the degree of skill. If, however, 
there is no relation between information possessed and corre- 

. 23 



^24 TRADE TESTS 

spending 5kill. then any exaraination which tested merely 
iafonnation would be doomed to failure, for it would give no 
iadication of the lirst important factor in trade ability, namely, 
skill in carrying out the various operations. Before oral ques- 
tions can be used to test trade ability, this crucial problem must 
be faced: To what extent can total trade ability be measured 
merely by testing the information of a workman with regard 
to his trade, without witnessing his dexterity in trade opera- 
tions, or observing the products of his work? 

Ob\-iously the question and answer method does not, and 
never can. measure trade skill directly. \Miat then does it 
measure? The answer is patent — it measures the information 
which the man has with regard to certain elements of his trade. 
Only in so far as information is the reflection of experience in 
the trade, obtained at lirst hand, will the question method give 
us any indication of skill. 

At the time when the method of examination was under dis- 
cussion, there was a most marked di\'ision of opinion concerning 
this, the critical point, upon which the whole procedure depends. 
Men of experience in industr}' were di\'ided into two distinct 
camps. The flrst camp, which was by far the larger, was insist- 
ent that the manner in which a man answered questions had no 
relation to his skill in the trade. They cited dozens of concrete 
cases of men who. they said, were flrst-rate workmen, and who, 
in their opinion, would be unable to answer a single question 
Ts-ith regard to their trade. They instanced the predominance of 
the exclusively motor-minded U-pe of tradesman who could do 
the job with his hands, but could not talk about it in words. 
They remembered possibly one workman out of thousands they 
had known, who was completely tongue-tied. The recollection 
of the isolated case outweighs the multitude of normal cases. 
The ordinary mind is fascinated and paralyzed by the magical 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 25 

power of the isolated case. To hold to the truth of the general 
law and to maintain an even temper, when extreme cases are 
paraded as proofs by the skeptical, require not only the genius 
of the scientist, but the forbearance of the saint. In fact, some 
foremen would make it appear that it is almost a mark of dis- 
tinction for the workman to be unable to answer any questions 
with regard to his trade. The workman, in their minds, is a 
bundle of mechanical skills or habits. They feel that the exer- 
cise of these skills or habits is so automatic in a good workman 
that it is a positive mark of his superiority to lack any power 
of describing in words the elements of the processes. To reduce 
their argument to scientific terms would be to say that there 
is little relationship between information of the trade, which 
can be expressed in words, and skill in performing its processes. 
The other group, which was much in the minority, held that, 
with the ordinary workman, all the information which he has 
in regard to his trade has been obtained through actual trade 
experience. They claimed that if questions were skilfully 
worded, if they used the language of the shop, if they concerned 
themselves with familiar processes, the larger percentage of 
the workmen who could perform the operations must be able 
to talk in trade terms, provided, of course, that the examiner 
and the applicant speak the same language. While this group 
maintained the proposition of the close correspondence between 
skill and information, they still recognized that a small per- 
centage of tradesmen, of high proficiency and skill, might be 
unable to meet the demands of the oral question. Admitting 
that this controversy can only be settled by actual experiment, 
it may be useful to note a few of the points which were raised 
at the time of the discussion. It has been said that the informa- 
tion which the ordinary workman possesses, with regard to his 
trade, is the outcome of his actual performance of the processes 



26 TRADE TESTS 

of his trade. It is, so to speak, the residue or the precipitate of 
his experience. While it may be true that the workman occa- 
sionally will be unable to describe in words processes in which 
he has taken part, it will very rarely happen that he can give 
information with regard to an operation he has never performed. 
If. the majority of workmen had received technical training in 
their occupation, it is probable that the statement would not 
be so true. Only the theorist thinks that the knowledge which 
the ordinary workman possesses is the result of intellectual 
toil by midnight oik Generally speaking, for ninety-nine per 
cent of workmen, what information they possess has come from 
the sweat of their own brow and the labor of their own hands. 
Their school is that of experience, not of books. If this posi- 
tion is accepted, it alters the attitude towards the effectiveness 
of the oral question method. The oral question will, under 
these circumstances, give us a measure of the skill of the work- 
man, not directly, bat indirectly. Information being merely 
the result of experience in the trade operation, any series of 
well-chosen questions which test information cannot, at the same 
time, fail to measure experience or effectiveness. An illustra- 
tion will perhaps make this point clear. Suppose this question 
''Of what material is the float in the carburetor made.^" is 
put to an automobile mechanic. All that is called for is cer- 
tain facts, but granted that the majority of workmen acquire 
these facts from experience, a correct answer signifies that the 
workman has had experience with the operation; otherwise, he 
would not have the necessary factual information. Assump- 
tions of this kind are constantly made in everyday life. If at a 
convention we hear any man, save a college professor, read a 
paper on some employment problem which contains what we 
know to be correct information, and if, in addition, he answers 
intelligently all the questions we put to him, we at once assume 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 27 

that he has had experience in employment work. If we do not 
make this assumption we are at a loss to know the reason for 
his knowledge. In this case there is, of course, a possibility that 
the information is theoretical, because the employment manager 
is increasingly consulting others and reading in connection with 
his subject, but we may safely suppose that such is not the 
case with the large majority of workmen. 

It was realized, however, that no amount of dogmatism or 
argument could settle this question. The decision depends on 
evidence alone. If oral questions do, as a matter of fact, differ- 
entiate between various degrees of trade ability, then the assump- 
tion of a close correspondence between skill and information is 
correct; if they fail to differentiate, such an assumption is un- 
tenable. The question is one which can be solved by trial or 
experiment, and by this method alone. The distinction be- 
tween the scientific method and the popular method lies in this 
very point. The scientific method necessitates caution, sus- 
pended judgment and prolonged experimentation before it gives 
a decision. The popular method uses heated arguments and 
dogmatic statements in place of cool experimentation and 
guarded generalizations. It rushes in where angels fear to 
tread, with confusion as the outcome. The reader will bear 
in mind that the great amount of the detail which is about to 
be described is the price which has to be paid for following the 
long but clearly marked scientific high road. 

Before we can show concretely the method of attacking this 
problem we must first consider the type of question which can- 
be employed to satisfy the requirements laid down. 

The Nature of the Question 

There is no limit to the scope of a question. It can demand 
for its answer the widest information on the one hand, or it 



28 TRADE TESTS 

may merely concern itself with the most specific detail. Ex- 
amples of questions of both of these types may be given. An 
extreme of the first type would be: *' Suppose a car was left in 
a garage for repair, and you were not told what was wrong. 
How would you proceed?" An illustration at the other extreme 
would be: ''What joint is there between the differential and the 
transmission?" A complete answer to the first question would 
involve a lengthy description of the majority of the processes 
in automobile repair. The answer, to be tolerably full, might 
well consume several hours. No two mechanics would answer 
the question in the same manner. Again, consider how such 
an answer could be rated. Suppose ten points were to be as- 
signed to this question. What would constitute a score of lo, 
8, 6, 4, o? Contrast this first question with the second question. 
To the latter one word, and one word only is the correct reply 
"Universal." The question calls for a most specific answer, no 
two examiners can disagree on the rating. If instructions call 
for a credit of two points for the answer ''universal," and zero 
for all other answers, there is no room for doubt concerning the 
credit to be given. 

Take again two examples, neither of which is so extreme as 
those just given; both will be taken from the field of the general 
machinist. The first question that we will consider is, "What 
kind of work can be done on a universal milling machine?" 
Here the answer called for is much more definite than the first 
example cited. But there is still room for a considerable varia- 
tion in answers given by two highly skilled machinists. No two 
examiners, even if both were skilled examiners and skilled trades- 
men, would agree on the credit to be assigned to the same answer. 
In addition, the workman would never know when he had given 
a complete reply. The question of the other type which we 
will consider is: "When starting a hole on a drill press, if the 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 29 

drill runs out of center what do you commonly do?" Here the 
answer cannot be as definite as in the case of reply to the ques- 
tion which calls for the joint between the differential and trans- 
mission but the limits of the possible correct' answer are clearly 
defined. The only suitable one would be somewhat as follows: 
^'Use a gauge." ^'Try it with a chisel." ''Draw over with a 
gauge." ''Draw over with a chisel." If it was agreed that 
provided the workman mentioned "chisel," "gauge" or "draw 
it over" a credit of four would be given for the answer, the 
marking could be quite definite. All examiners must agree 
when the directions are so specific. Note that we do not claim 
that this is an ideal trade question; in fact, we use it as an 
illustration because it lacks the precision of a perfect question. 

Tlie Multi-answer versus Single-answer Question 

The contrast between these two types of questions will now 
be clearer. For purposes of convenience we shall designate 
them according to the answer called for as (i) multi-answer 
questions; (2) single-answer questions. It may be well to con- 
sider the advantages and disadvantages of these two types of 
questions from the standpoint of their application to the army 
problem. The multi-answer question is by far the more familiar; 
whenever the question and answer method was being employed 
in industry, it was this type which was found. Employment 
offices, trade unions, and examining bodies such as Civil Service 
Commissions had, in a large number of trades, series of these 
questions which were available for any purposes. Moreover, 
this kind of a question enables the examiner to discover whether 
the workman understands the whole process ; there is no restric- 
tion as to the ground covered. So much for the advantages of 
the multi- answer question; its great drawbacks are, first, that 
it requires for satisfactory use an examiner who has trade knowl- 



30 TRADE TESTS 

edge, and second, that it is absolutely impossible to standardize 
the answers to the question, so that examiners at different 
places and under different conditions would give the same 
rating for the same answers. 

The single-answer question, on the other hand, does not 
necessitate trade information on the part of the examiner. 
Where the question is so worded that there is only one possible 
reply, any examiner who can read is capable of conducting the 
examination. What is more, there can be no disagreement 
concerning the credits given. The disadvantages of the method, 
from the standpoint of -adoption in the army, were twofold. 
In the first place, there had been no systematic attempt, before 
1917, to try out questions of this type. There were no sets of 
questions available, constructed on these lines. In addition, 
it appeared very doubtful whether specific questions, which had 
merely a single answer, would fulfill the main function for which 
the tests were to be given, namely, to differentiate between dif- 
ferent degrees of trade ability. No method, however suitable 
for nontechnical examiners, however objective the results it 
might yield, could be employed unless, with a considerable degree 
of precision, it separated workmen into classes, according to 
their general trade knowledge and practical usefulness. 

It may be well to mention at this point the similarity be- 
tween the multi-answer question and the single-answer question. 
They are not essentially different types of questions, they merely 
differ in degree. Whereas the multi-answer question demands 
for its answer a large number of elements or pieces of informa- 
tion, the single-answer question concentrates on one particular 
element of information. For example, contrast the two ques- 
tions, ''What do you do when turning a taper in steel on a 
lathe?" and "How high would you set the tool when turning 
a taper in steel on a lathe?" The first question calls for a long 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 31 

answer, descriptive of the whole process; it would be difficult 
to know just when to begin and when to stop in the outline of 
the operation. The second question simply picks out one of 
the most important elements in the process and confines itself 
to extracting information with regard to this essential part 
of the operation. It may reasonably be supposed, if the 
answer "At center" or "A little above center" is given, that 
the workman in all probability has a knowledge of the whole 
operation. Again consider the two questions, "What is a single- 
phase lighting transformer?" and "What are the names of the 
two windings in a single-phase lighting transformer?" Here 
the wider question gives no clear indication of the kind of 
answer required. Does it call for an account of the uses or con- 
struction of the transformer? How detailed is the information 
required? Is it necessary to describe from the very beginning 
the building up of the apparatus? In contrast with, this vague- 
ness is the clear-cut question which asks merely for the names 
of the two windings. The assumption again is that if these 
names are known, there is a great probability that a consider- 
able amount of further knowledge is present with reference to 
the properties and uses of the instrument. It will be necessary, 
when we consider the selection of questions, to return to this 
point as to the probability or likelihood that a single element of 
the process will give an indication of knowledge or ignorance, 
on the p9,rt of the workman, of the whole process. It may be 
pointed out, however, that an assumption of this kind is made, 
consciously or unconsciously, in every t3^e of examination. 
When to test a workman the foreman gives him a specific job 
to do, other than that for which he is to be employed, he is 
assuming that success or failure in the single operation will 
give some indication of power in a host of operations which 
are not involved in the specific job. 



32 TRADE TESTS 

To summarize, then, we may say that the single-answer ques- 
tion is the most feasible oral method which can be used to satisfy 
the requirements of the army situation. The multi-answer 
question, whatever its other advantages, does not admit of being 
handled and marked objectively by an examiner who is not 
skilled in the trade in which he is giving the test. 

It cannot be too clearly recognized that up to this point we 
have made no assumption that questions of the single-answer 
t}pe will serve to differentiate between workmen of different 
degrees of skill. All that we have established is the fact that 
the single-answer question is a method which fulfills the neces- 
sary requirements of yielding an objective rating by an unskilled 
examiner. The demonstration of the extent to which the most 
specific t}'pe of question will differentiate between various levels 
of ability ^all be considered in full in a succeeding section. 

It may be well, however, to point out at this stage that the 
two requirements of army procedure which we have now men- 
tioned, namely, that the test can be given by a nonskilled exam- 
iner, and that there can be no disagreement in marking, are not 
characteristic merely of tests used in the army. 

In a large number of industries it is very desirable to have 
methods of examining applicants which do not involve the 
services of a skilled trasdesman. In many emplo}TQent offices 
the large number of trades handled makes it an utter impossi- 
bility to have individuals in the office who are skilled in all the 
trades in which there happen to be openings. It is apparent 
that it is a source of great waste to have skilled mechanics in 
an employment office when a clerk could perform the same 
ser\dce. The proper post for a skilled mechanic is in the shop: 
he is not in the strategic place, when he is conducting routine 
interviews. Even when the emplo}Tnent office merely refers 
applicants to the foreman in the shop, there is great waste of 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 33 

time and energy, unless some type of trade examination can 
be given before the reference is made. 

An illustration will make this last point clearer. The author 
recently was in the employment office of a large plant where a 
man was being interviewed who claimed to be a general lathe 
operator. He had given information with regard to his experi- 
ence, and the interviewer was satisfied that it was worth while 
to refer him to the foreman of the department for which he 
was applying. Just after the man had been given the card of 
reference to the foreman and was about to be conducted to the 
department in question, permission was asked to give the appli- 
cant a trade test which had been constructed for lathe oper- 
ators. The first question, which was of the very simplest order, 
was answered correctly. But the following questions were quite 
beyond his range of knowledge. After six out of the possible 
eighteen questions had been given, the man admitted quite 
frankly that he was not a general lathe operator. He said 
he had been engaged on a lathe entirely on production work 
of the most routine kind, and that he knew nothing about run- 
ning a lathe except in this particular operation. His closing 
remarks were very significant: — '^I knew when I came in that 
I was no lathe operator, but I guessed I would be able to get 
away with it. You have certainly called my bluff." The appli- 
cant was of course told that he did not qualify, and he went 
away apparently quite satisfied that he had received a very fair 
deal. If there had been no trade test to apply, the man would 
undoubtedly have consumed the time of a highly skilled work- 
man for some little period before the true extent of his knowl- 
edge was discovered. With the use of the simplest form of 
trade test the actual state of affairs was discovered by a non- 
technical examiner in three minutes. 

Not only in the employment office itself is there great scope 



34 TRADE TESTS 

for the application of these methods, but they also will have a 
great field of usefulness when hiring has to be done out of town, 
or away from the plant. A large number of concerns find it 
necessary to send highly skilled workmen to interview appli-- 
cants. Especially is this the case when transportation is fur- 
nished. With a method which obviates the necessity of using 
a trained tradesman as examiner, any clerk can be sent, and, 
what is more, he can handle any number of trades in which men 
are to be hired. 

Attempts to Meet the Interview Problem, Prior to the 
Introduction of the Single-answer Question 

The significance of the single answer question will be more 
fully understood, when the inadequacy of the previous methods 
of interview are realized. 

In describing the question with a single- word answer we have 
rather forestalled the conclusions of a long process of experi- 
mentation which was gone through by the army prior to the 
introduction of the standarized trade question test. 

As soon as shipments and transfers of tradesmen were made, 
it became apparent that it was absolutely impossible to rely 
merely on the information given by the soldier himself. As 
has been already said, men were actually shipped to France 
who admitted on their arrival that they had merely bluffed as 
to their trade knowledge in order to see service abroad. It 
was absolutely necessary for the army to act at once in the 
matter and to provide the personnel officers in the camps with 
some method of checking up the claims of the men. To meet 
this requirement series of questions for a large number of trades 
were collected. These were published under the title, "Aids for 
Interviewers." Samples of these questions in a number of trades 
are appended. The general arrangement of each interview is 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 35 

obvious. There are three questions which it was supposed 
would be suitable for apprentices in the trade, these being 
marked with letter ''A"; three intermediate questions marked 
with letter "J," which might be considered to test the average 
workman, followed by a series of questions ranging in number 
from three to five, which were supposed to be suitable for men 
of exceptional trade ability. The following directions were 
given to the interviewers: 



AIDS FOR INTERVIEWERS 

1. These AIDS are for use in the preliminary interview of recruits. 

2. It is not expected that these questions will be used with all 
tradesmen, but only when the interviewer is in doubt about the pre- 
liminary classification, and wishes to question the recruit more closely 
about his trade. 

3. CAUTION. Do not expect answers which correspond word 
for word with the answers printed in the AIDS. The answers are 
primarily for the benefit of the examiner. He will often find it neces- 
sary to supplement questions given with other questions in order to 
draw out the information desired. 

4. As an arbitrary means of classifying according to degree of 
knowledge or skill of candidate, all questions have been divided into 
three groups: 

a. Questions designated by "A'" are intended to determine the knowledge 
of the candidate on such subjects as come under an Apprentice's experience 
or one with only a moderate amount of training and experience. 

b. Questions designated by "J" cover such knowledge as might be ex- 
pected from a Journeyman, or one who has completed a period of preliminary 
training. 

c. Questions designated by "JE" cover such knowledge as might be 
expected from a journeyman who could be considered an expert and capable 
of acting as a foreman or boss or having advanced training and experience. 

\_These interviews are reproduced by permission oj the Adjutant General.'] 



36 TRADE TESTS 



STANDARD 



MACHINIST 

(GENERAL) 
Page 1 



1:A 



2:A 



3:A 



1:J 



2:J 



3:J 



(a) Name six types of machine tools and (b) describe the work 
that each is adapted for. 



(a) (i) Engine lathe, (2) planer, (3) shaper, (4) grinders, (5) drill 
press, (6) milling machine. Most others are a modified form of 
one of these: (b) (i) Engine lathe: Training and boring, 
threading — internal and external. (2) Planer: Planing work 
to a flat surface. (3) Flat planing on small work. (4) Grinding 
to smooth and close dimensions. (5) Drill press: DriUing and 
boring holes. _ (6) Milling machine: Cutting keyways, gears, 
and work which with the use of cutters can be more efficiently 
and accurately handled on this machine than on other tools. 



Q. What tools should be used in measuring (a) inside diameters, 
(b) outside diameters? 



.\. (a) (i) Inside calipers, (2) inside micrometer, and (3) plug gauge, 
(b) (i) Outside calipers, (2) outside micrometer, and (3) snap 
gauge. 



Q. Name the different common classes of gearing used in machines. 

\. (i) Spur, (2) bevel, (3) spiral, (4) worm, (5) herring bone. 



Q. What is meant by (a) "rake" and (b) " clearance " on a lathe 
tool? 



(a) Angle or clearance given the cutting face of tool at the cutting 
edge which would cause the tool to cut, curl and clear the chip. 
(b) The angle ground on the sides and front to keep all but 
the cutting edge of the tool from rubbing the work. 



(a) How much metal should be removed by using a straight 
fluted reamer, (b) Name some other types of reamers. 



(a) Not more than one sixty-fourth inch, (b) (i) Taper, (2) ex- 
panding, (3) chucking, (4) rose, (5) shell, (6) fluted. 



Q. What are some coatings on which lines may be made for scribing 
or marking on metals? 



A. (i) Dry chalk, (2) powdered chalk mixed with alcohol, (3) rub- 
bing with sulphate of copper, (4) white lead and turpentine. 



THE ORAL TRADE TES^ 



37 



STANDARD 



MACHINIST 

(GENERAL) 
Page 2 



1:JE 



Q. (a) What is the value of the clapper box on a shaper, slotter and 
planer? (b) What is the effect of moving the clapper box holder 
to either side of the shaper and planer? 



A., (a) It prevents wearing away of the cutting edge of tool by drag- 
ging on the quick return, (b) The moving of holder in same 
direction as cut destroys the value of the clapper box, and mov^ 
ing in opposite direction to cut increases its value on heavy 
cuts. 



2: JE 



Q. What are the most common standard tapers in use? 



\. (i) Morse, (2) Brown & Sharpe, (3) Jarno, (4) S. A. E. 



Q. What kind of work can be done on a universal milling machine? 



3: JE 



A. (i) Cutting pieces to form, by using special shaped rotary cutters. 
(2) Facing off flat surfaces. (3) Cutting spiral grooves, such 
as twist drills and milling cutters. (4) Dividing circles into 
a given number of parts by use of dividing head. 



38 TRADE TESTS 



STANDARD 



AUTO REPAIRER 

(ENGINE) 
Page 1 



1:A 



2:A 



Q. What kind of bearings are used in motors? 



A. (i) Ball, (2) babbit, or (3) bronze faced with babbit. 



Q. How should carbon be removed from cylinder and piston heads? 



A. (i) Remove cylinder or cylinder head and scrape off, or (2) burn 
out with oxygen. 



3:A 



Q. How should engine valves be ground in? 



A. (i) Remove valve springs, (2) coat valve surface with grinding 
compound, (3) turn back and forth with screw-driver with very 
little pressure, (4) lift valve frequently and give half turn while 
off seat. Continue this operation until there is an even surface 
all around and no rings or ridges. 



Q. How should fit be tested after fitting new connecting rod bearings; 



1:J 



A. (i) Take hold of connecting rod at wrist pin and (2) try play at 
different positions all the way around crankshaft. 



2:J 



Q. What should be done to " scrape in " a connecting rod bearing? 



A (i) Coat the crank pin very slightly with prussian blue or carriage 
blue, (2) put bearing and cap in place, (3) bolt together, 
(4) work connecting rod back and forth on crank shaft, (5) re- 
move, and (6) scrape away metal carefully where blue paint 
appears on bearing and cap. (7) Set bearing up so that it is 
slightly tight. 



Q. What is the relation of the speed of the cam shaft to that of the 
crank shaft in a six cylinder motor? 



3: J 



A. The cam shaft turns one-half a revolution while the crank shaft 
turns once. 



Q. What are indications of wear in a ball bearing? 



1:JE 



A. (i) They may be heard to drop and become noisy, (2) the races 
also become rough by flaking off of the metal. If the races are 
not sufficiently hardened they may groove without flaking. 
(3) Crankshaft will have play in the bearing which can be 
located bv lifting crank shaft with a jack. 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 39 



STANDARD 



AUTO REPAIRER 

(ENGINE) 
Page 2 



2: JE 



Q. Does the diameter of the piston head vary from that of the bottom? 



A. In some the variation is about two thousandths of an inch; in 
^ - others there is no difference. 



3: JE 



Q. What clearance should be allowed between ends of the rings in 
fitting new piston rings? 



\. Two thousandths of an inch for each inch diameter of piston. 



Q. How should a magneto be timed? 



4: JE 



A. (i) Place the crankshaft in the proper position, (2) have the 
magneto in a position where it will deliver a spark, (3) then 
mesh the gears or connect the coupling. Care should be taken 
to determine whether the magneto runs clockwise or a^nti- 
clockwise. 



Q. What is the gear ratio of the magneto shaft to the crankshaft on 
(a) four cylinder motor, (b) six cylinder, (c) eight cylinder, 
(d) twelve cylinder? 



5: JE 



A. (a) One to one. (b) One and one-half to one. (c) Two to one. 
(d) Three to one, unless a double distributor is used when it 
v/ill be one-half to one. 



40 TRADE TESTS 



STANDARD 



MOTION PICTURE 
OPERATOR 

Page 1 



1:A 



Q. Which side of the film should be toward the light? 



A. The emulsion side. 



Q. What is the standard projection speed? 



2:A 



3: A 



A. (i) Ten pictures per second, (2) one foot per second, (3) sixteen 
to seventeen minutes per reel of one thousand feet 



Q. How should a film patch be made? 



A. (i) Cut film on floor line, (2) leave one-eighth oi an inch margin 
on one strip and scrape off emulsion, (3) cement together so 
that perforation holes are in alignment. Cement should be 
applied to celluloid side only. 



4: A 



1:J 



2:J 



3:J 



4:J 



1: JE 



Q. What is the use of the revolving shutter? 



A. To cut off light from screen while one picture is shifting to another. 



Q. What is the lowest practical voltage required to maintain a direct- 
current arc? 



A. About fortv volts. 



Q. Which arc requires the larger current for the same intensity of 
Ught — A. C. or D. C? 



\. A. C. 



Q. Why does a picture appear distorted on the screen? 



A. Screen and line of projection not being set at right angles. 



Q. What size and style wire should be used for connecting arc? 



A. Number six B. & S. or larger, asbestos covered. 



Q. How should a direct current arc be connected? 



A. (i) Positive wire to the upper carbon, (2) and negative wire 
to the lower carbon of lamp. 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 41 



STANDARD 



MOTION PICTURE 
OPERATOR 

Page 2 



2: JE 



Q. What causes condenser lenses to break? 



(i) Arc too close to condenser. (2) Lens iitting holders too tight. 
(3) Cold air striking hot condenser. 



Q. What size carbons should be used on : (a) thirty-five amperes, 
D. C, (b) sixty amperes D. C, (c) thirty-five amperes A. C, 
(d) sixty amperes A. C? 



3: JE 



(a) Five-eighths inch cored positive and one-half inch solid 
negative. 

(b) Three-quarters inch cored positive and five-eighths solid 
negative. 

(c) Five-eighths inch cored upper and lower. 

(d) Three-quarters inch cored upper and lower. 



Q. How is the focal length of lens found, if given the distance from 
machine to screen and the size picture wanted? 



4: JE 



(i) Multiply the distance between machine and screen by width 
of film gauge, (2) and divide by the width of picture. This 
will give the focal length of lens. 



4!2 TRADE TESTS 



STANDARD 


SURVEYOR 

Page 1 


1:A 


Q. What is a bench mark? 


A. A permanent point whose elevation is accurately determined with 
reference to some fixed datum. 


2:A 


Q. What is the degree of curvature of a curve? 


A. The angle at center, subtended by a chord of one hundred feet. 
It is expressed by the number of degrees and minutes in that 
angle. 


3: A 


Q. (a) What equipment is necessary for a transit to be used as a 
leveling instrument? (b) What adjustments should be made? 


A. (a) A level tube on the telescope, (b) Axis of bubble should be 
adjusted parallel with line of sight. 






1:J 


Q. (a) What is meant by azimuth? (b) If the bearing of a line is 
South thirty-five degrees West, what is the azimuth of the line, 
taking North as zero azimuth? 


A. (a) The angle that a horizontal line forms with the magnetic 
meridian, the angle being measured in a clockwise direction 
from zero to three hundred and sixty degrees, taking zero 
either at the North point or at the South point, (b) Thirty- 
five degrees plus one hundred and eighty degrees equals two 
hundred and fifteen degrees. 


2:J 


Q. How can the leveler determine when the rodman is holding the 
rod vertically? 


A. By means of the vertical hair the leveler can tell whether the rod 
is in the vertical plane of the line of sight. To be sure that the 
rod is actually vertical he has the rodman sway the rod gently 
toward and away from the instrument and notes the smallest 
reading obtained on the road. This gives the vertical position. 


3: J 


Q. (a) In leveling what is meant by datum? (b) What is a grade 
line? 


A. (a) A datum is a level surface, assumed or actual, to which the 
elevations of other points are referred. It is the plane of zero 
elevation, (b) The grade line represents the finished surface 
of a road, railroad, etc. It shows the rate of rise or fall. 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 43 



STANDARD 



SURVEYER 

Page 2 



4:J 



1:JE 



2: JE 



Q. What will be the elevation of grade at stations sixty-five and 
seventy with one per cent ascending grade, if the elevation of 
grade at station sixty is one hundred and sixty-two feet? 



Since the grade is one foot to every hundred feet, the elevation 
,at Station Sixty-five will be one hundred and sixty-two feet 
plus five feet, or one hundred and sixty-seven feet, while at 
Station Seventy the elevation will be one hundred and sixty- 
two feet plus ten feet, or one hundred and seventy-two feet. 



What will be the position of the vernier when the angle read is 
eighty-four degrees thirty-four minutes when the smallest 
graduation of the limb of a transit is one-half degree or thirty 
minutes, and the vernier reads to single minutes? 



A. The zero of the vernier will be just past eight\^-four degrees thirty 
minutes on the limb, and the graduation marked four on the 
vernier will coincide with a graduation mark on the limb. 



Q. Explain the method of prolonging a line from a given backsight 
by double centering. 



(i) Set up on line, (2) direct line of sight to backsight, (3) reverse 
telescope and set a point ahead, (4) revolve on vertical axis and 
sight again to backsight, (5) reverse telescope, set another 
point ahead, (6) take mean of two forward points. 



Q. Name any method of computing the area of a closed survey 



3: JE 



A., (i) Double meridian, (2) coordinates, (3) dividing into triangles. 



44 TRADE TESTS 



STANDARD 



TIRE REPAIRER 

(RUBBER) 
Page 1 



1: A 



2: A 



Q. How should small puncture in tube be repaired 



(i) Rough the tube on outside, (2) wipe with cloth that has been 
dipped in gasoline, (3) apply vulcanizing cement (allow cement 
to dry about ten minutes), (4) then cut small piece of tube 
gum, (5) place this over puncture, (6) remove all ,air between 
gum and tube. 



Q. How should tube be prepared which requires section to be put in? 



\. (i) Turn ends of tube back about three inches, (2) buff and 
wipe to remove dust, (3) apply acid curing cement, (4) allow 
cement to drv about fifteen minutes. 



Q. What should be done if tube has a tendency to stick together? 



3:A 



A. (i) If before vulcanizing — separate. (2) If after vulcanizing 
diD in cold water for a minute and pull gradually apart. 



How should tube with long rip such as caused by getting pinched 
between rim and bead of casing be repaired? 



1:J 



(i) Rough both sides of cut or rip with emery wheel, if possible, 
(2) clean inside of tube with gasoline about one inch back from 
cut on both sides, (3) apply vulcanizing cement inside and 
outside of tube allowing ten minutes to dry, (4) cut piece of 
inside patching material to cover cemented surface on inside of 
tube. (5) dip inside patch in clean gasoline. (6) insert patch 
quickly" into tube (this allows patch to spread evenly on tube), 
(7) allow this to dry about five minutes. (8) fill cut with tube 
gum, (o) stitch the repair to remove all air between patch and 
tube. 



Q. How should blow-out in casing be prepared? 



2:J 



(i) Remove outside rubber and breaker fabric. (2) buff cushion 
rubber from body fabric, (3) remove outside material. This 
would depend entirely on size of tire to be repaired, but in no 
instance should outside repair be smaller than three inches 
lengthwise '^dth the tread of the tire. The inside method of 
preparation would be the same as used in small fabric break 
removing the fabric, except the stepping up would be about 
one inch for each laver of fabric. 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 45 



STANDARD 



TIRE REPAIRER 

(RUBBER) 



Page 2 



3:J 



Q. What would be the cause of an outside repair swelling or blister- 
ing when removing tire from mold or cavity? 



A. (i) Caused by not removing moisture before applying cement, 
or (2) not allowing cement to dry before applying material. 



Q. (a) What should be done with tire if the outside repair swelled 
or blistered when removing from mold or cavity? (b) Would 
tire require any further attention or treatment? (c) What 
would be the result? 



4:J 



(a) (i) Dip tire in cold water until blister disappears, (2) then 
prick repair with brad awl to allow steam or vapor to escape, 
(b) After it is fairly cooled off put back into mold and recure 
about half the time necessary to complete the full cure, (c) Re- 
pair would come off shortly after tire is put into use. Vulcani- 
zation not being completed, the two surfaces would not stick 
together. 



Q. What are some of the causes for honey-combing of rubber during 
vulcanization? 



1:JE 



A. (i) Not allowing the cement sufficient time to dry, (2) dampness 
in the repair material, (3) lack of internal pressure in the air 
bag. 



How can it be determined whether or not rubber is properly 
vulcanized? 



2: JE 



(a) When rubber is overvulcanized it becomes brittle and chips 
or breaks easily, (b) When under vulcanized it becomes dead 
and has no come-back when stretched, (c) When properly 
vulcanized it has snap — you can tell by pushing a pencil or 
sharp instrument into it; if the depression fills up readily it is 
properly cured. 



Q. How should fabric broken casings (caused by blow-out) be built 
up? 



3: JE 



(i) By overlapping with rebuilding fabric as many layers as 
were removed, and (2) apphdng an extra layer of fabric at 
least two inches beyond the last stepped-up layer. 



46 TRADE TESTS 



STANDARD 



BRICK-LAYER 

Page 1 



1:A 



2:A 



3:A 



1: J 



2: J 



3:J 



4: J 



Q. Why should brick be wet before using? 



A. Because dry brick absorbs water from the mortar, thereby injur- 
ing the binding qualities of the mortar. 



Q. What is meant by tempering mortar? 



A.. Working over mortar, which has become stiff, to a proper con- 
sistency for use. 



Q. What is meant by (a) courses, (b) stretchers and (c) headers? 



,\ (a) Courses are the horizontal layers of brick, (b) Stretcher is 
the term applied to a brick laid as the wall runs, (c) Header 
is the term applied to the brick laid in the direction of the 
thickness of a wall. 



Q. Name the different blockings used in brick-laying. 



\. (i) Gable end blocking, (2) party wall blocking (3) three course 
blocking and toothing. 



Q. (a) How should a door or window opening be "topped out"? 
(b) Describe arrangement. 



(a) Either by an arch or a lintel. The style arch usually em- 
ployed is the segmental, (b) The lintel may be of stone, iron 
or steel. If it is narrower than the wall in thickness, a second 
lintel, generally of wood with an arch turned over it, is placed 
on the inside. 



Q. What qualities should good brick possess? 



A. (i) Hardness; (2) uniformity of color; (3) freedom from lumps; 
(4) edges sharp and angles square; (5) a clear ringing sound 
when struck with the trowel. 



Q. Give some of the reasons why walls become imsafe. 



;i) Insufficient foundations; (2) use of inferior mortar; (3) walls 
out of plumb; (4) improper bonding; (5) lax-ing brick with 
uneven courses and leveling up with thick joints of mortar; 
(6) not anchoring walls properly; (7) racking walls while 
putting on beams. 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 47 



STANDARD 



BRICK-LAYER 

Page 2 



1:JE 



Q. Describe the different types of bond in brick work? 



A. (i) English Bond — xAlternate courses of headers and stretchers. 

(2) Flemish Bond — A header and stretcher in succession on 
every course. 

(3) Common Bond — Five courses of stretchers to one of headers. 



2: JE 



Q. If you had to do masonry work in freezing weather what precau- 
tions would you take to obtain best results? 



A. (i) Heat the sand and water. (2) Protect the work from the 
front, covering with tarpaulin, straw, etc., until the cement is 
thoroughly set. 



Q. How are foundation walls protected from dampness? 



3: JE 



A. (i) Give two coats of an approved waterproofing paint, (2) apply 
one inch of waterproofed cement mortar, (3) a course of com- 
mon brick instead of the mortar or (4) a course of hollow brick 
plastered with cement mortar. 



Q. What are curtain walls? 



4:JE 



\. Outer masonry walls used in buildings of skeleton type which 
are usually supported at every story or every other story by 
the steel framework and carr}^ nothing but their own weight. 



48 TRADE TESTS 



STANDARD 



SHEET METAL WORKER 

(GENERAL) 
Page 1 



1:A 



Q. Name some of the machines used for sheet metal work? 



v. (i) Straight or square shears, (2) rotary shears, (3) beading 
machine, (4) cornice break, (5) folder ^^'iring machine. 



Q. (a) What is a burring machine, (b) a brake? 



2: A 



v. (a) Machine used to turn small edges on irregular work, (b) yii 
chine used for forming sheet metal at different angles. 



Q. How should black sheet iron be prepared for soldering? 



3: A 



A. (1) Scrape or file parts until bright, then (2) tin — using "cut 
acid" as a flux. 



Q. How should the size of a sheet, from which to cut a pipe of a 
given diameter, be determined? 



1- J 



A (i) Length of the pipe determines the first measurement, (2) by 
multiplying the diameter of the pipe by three decimal one four 
one six gives the second measurement. 



2:J 



Q. What gauges of metal are commonly used in an air heating system? 



A. (i) Gauges twenty-two, twenty-four and twenty-six are used 
for main pipes, (2) sixteen and eighteen for fan connections. 



3:J 



Q. How is a piece of wrought iron or brass tinned for *' sweating "? 



A. (i) Clean the iron or brass, (2) coat thinly with flux and (3) rub 
with a hot soldering iron, occasionally touching the solder until 
a coating adheres to the metal, or (4) heat with blow pipe, 
(5) sprinkle on flux and rub with solder. 



Q. (a) What are the main differences in the method of applying and 
(b) the reason for the use of hard and soft solder? 



4:J 



A. (a) Hard solder is applied with a blow pipe, and soft solder with 
a soldering iron, (b) (i) Hard solder is used for high tempera- 
ture work and where strength is required, (2) and soft solder 
for low temperature work. 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 49 



STANDARD 



SHEET METAL WORKER 

(GENERAL) 
Page 2 



Q. What method is used, where work is large, in developing the full 
size patterns or " lay out " on work from scale drawings? 



1:JE 



A. (i) Assume a convenient scale which is workable in the limits of 
drawing board and design pattern, (2) then use this pattern 
for "laying out" or scribing work, enlarging each dimension 
from "pattern scale" to full size. 



2: JE 



Explain the terms (1) '* parallel line development," (2) '' radial 
line development," and (3) *' triangulation," as applied to 
sheet metal pattern drafting. 



(i) The method employed when laying out patterns of regular 
continuous shapes, that is, the profile or section, is continuous 
throughout the object to be made. 

(2) The method employed in developing regular tapering forms, 
and takes in all solids having any of the regular geometric 
figures as a base, which terminate in an apex, directly over the 
center of the base. 

(3) The method employed to develop irregular forms which can- 
not be developed by either the "parallel or radial line" methods, 
the object to be developed being cut up in the form of triangles 
from which the various true lengths are obtained, and with 
which the pattern is developed. 



3: JE 



State what sheet metals can be soldered (1) when rosin is used 
as a flux, (2) when muriatic acid is used as a flux, (3) when 
" killed " acid is used. 



(i) Tin plate, sheet copper and sheet lead can be soldered using 
rosin as a flux. (2) Galvanized iron and zinc can be soldered 
using muriatic acid. (3) Tin plate, sheet copper, zinc, bronze 
and brass can be soldered using "killed" acid as a flux. 



.50 TRADE TESTS 



STANDARD 



ELECTRICIAN 

INSIDE WIREMAN; 
Page 1 



1: A 



Q. How should the head of nail be protected from splitting the knob? 



A. Bv using ■"leather heads. "" 



Q. How high from the finished floor should ordinary flush or snap 
switch outlets be placed? 



2: A 



3: A 



A. Four to four and one-half feet. 



Q, Describe the proper method of cutting and threading a piece of 
conduit. 



A. (i) Cut the conduit with a hack saw, (2) ream the end thor- 
oughly until no burrs or sharp edges remain, (3) then proceed 
to cut thread. (4) thoroughly oihng the dies with lard oil. 



Q. What is the maximum allowable load of the branch circuits of a 
Ughting panel? 



1: J 



A. Six hundred and sixty watts. 



What size conduit would be used for the following combination 
of wires : a nimiber fourteen duplex and number fourteen 
double braided rubber covered single conductor, b; four 
pieces of niunber twelve double braided rubber covered single 
conductor, c three pieces of nimiber six double braided rubber 
covered single conductor. 



2: J 



A. (a.) One-half inch conduit. (h) three-quarter inch conduit 
''c) one and one-quarter inch conduit. 



3: J 



Q. Give proper method of installing entrance switch and fuses. 



A. 'i) Should be so installed that fuses are toward the line. (2) en- 
trance switch so placed that gra\-ity tends to open switch. 
(3) blades of switch "•dead"' when in open position. 



Q. How are conductors supported Ln a vertical riser to take the 
strain off the contacts? 



4 :J 



A. Ci) By the use of approved Junction boxes, or (2) ninety degree 
bend in riser. 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 51 



STANDARD 



ELECTRICIAN 

(INSIDE WIREMAN) 
Page 2 



1:JE 



2: JE 



Q. How would you protect the lamps on the low current side from 
being burned out (due to an unusual load condition) on a one 
hundred and ten — two hundred and twenty volt, three-v/ire 
" Edison system," with an unbalanced lamp load? 



A. (i) By "blocking in" the neutral fuse, or (2) running the neutral 
straight through without a fuse. 



Q. How many transformers and what transformer capacity should 
be used for fifteen horse-power, two hundred and twenty volt, 
three-phase induction motor? 



.\. Either one hfteen-kilovolt ampere, three-phase transformer or 
two seven and one-half kilovolt ampere single-phase trans- 
formers. 



3: JE 



Q. What are the methods most frequetly used in inside wiring? 



\. (i) Knob and tube, (2) rigid iron conduit, (3) flexible iron con- 
duit, (4) "B. X." conductor, (5) metal moulding. 



4:JE 



Q. What advantage is gained by the use of a three-phase trans- 
mission line as compared with a single phase? 



A. (i) Reduction in the size of copper for transmitting the same 
amount of power, and (2) a better balanced load condition. 



While undoubtedly these aids were of considerable value and 
a great improvement upon the previous state of affairs, where 
no examination was attempted, the method when put into 
operation broke down for the following reasons. 

First, it was discovered that many of the questions covered 
such a wide field that a large number of correct answers given 
by highly skilled tradesmen were not included in the answers 
supplied to the interviewer. Under these conditions it was 
repeatedly found that the interviewers were refusing to accept 
answers which were not given in the manual, in spite of the 
fact that these answers were sometimes better than those fur- 
nished there. 



52 TRADE TESTS 

Second, the method failed to furnish any objective rating. 
Even if all the questions were given by a highly intelligent 
examiner, it was impossible to decide the degree of abihty of 
the tradesman. While undoubtedly these interviews served to 
eliminate bluffers, they could, from their very nature, give no 
standardized rating of ability. For these reasons other methods 
of oral examination had to be sought. 

Third, the relative difficulty of each question was not known; 
some of the journeymen questions were, as a matter of fact, 
easier than the apprentice questions, and vice versa. 

The Development of the Single-word Answer Question 

The defects of the general method outlined in " Aids to Inter- 
viewers" served as the starting-point for the conscious develop- 
ment of the final oral trade test method. If skilled tradesmen 
could not be employed as examiners, if a standardized rating 
was essential, it w^as absolutely necessary to eliminate all 
questions of the multiple-answer type. This step, which has 
been described so briefly, involved, before its final adoption, a 
vast amount of "trial and error" experimentation. Most of 
those who were working with the problem felt that the reduc- 
tion of questions to the single-answer t}pe involved a dangerous 
narrowing of the content of the questions which could be em- 
ployed. The restrictions placed upon such questions, it was 
felt, might conceivably damage their value to such an extent 
that they would fail to satisfy the differentiating requirement. 
It is perfectly obvious that a large number of questions which 
might well be employed by an expert tradesman cannot be 
used when unskilled examiners have to give objective ratings. 
One of the first tests in which the impossibility of the use of the 
older type of question became apparent was in connection with 
the trade of rubber tire repairer. 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 53 

The first type of interview is shown. It can readily be seen 
that such an interview cannot be handled successfully by an 
examiner who has no knowledge of the process of vulcanizing. 
A cursory examination of the questions reveals the weakness of 
the method. Even the simplest question framed requires a 
lengthy and involved answer. This seems to be necessary when 
questions pertaining to processes are concerned. Take for 
example the question marked ij. A complete answer to this 
question should cover, according to the examination, the nine 
points mentioned. Within many of these points there is possi- 
bihty of considerable elaboration. A complete answer to such 
a question embraces so many items that the examiner must of 
necessity become confused. In addition, there is the difficulty 
that even if the examiner knows the trade, he is still in doubt 
as to what to accept as the complete answer. If questions are 
to be reduced to the single-answer type, the processes must be 
examined in order to discover what are the significant elements. 
Concerning these elements it is perfectly feasible to ask very 
specific questions; in fact, if the questions are carefully worded 
and well selected, it is often possible to reduce the answer to a 
single word. In addition, if elements in the process are chosen 
concerning which there is no variation in practice, the single 
answer will be the reply given by all tradesmen who have infor- 
mation with regard to that process. Without anticipating the 
full description of a trade test, the above statement can be 
illustrated by the following questions, of the type which even- 
tually replaced the method above described. 

Sample single-answer questions for tire repair workers: 

Question 1. What tool is used in skiving? 
Answer. Knife. 

Question 2. How long do you vulcanize when making a sectional 
repair on a tire at usual pressure? 



54 TRADE TESTS 

Answer. 40-60 minutes. 

Question 3. What is meant by buffing? 

Answer. Roughening (cleaning, scraping) the surface. 

Question 4. Where is cushion stock commonly used? 

Answer. Between tread (breaker strip) and carcass (body) 
(fabric) . 



Limitations of the Single-answer Questions 

To forestall objections it may be observed that the require- 
ment of objectivity in the scoring, which virtually necessitates 
a single-answer form of question, limits materially the scope of 
the question. It prevents absolutely what up to the present 
has been the stock form of question, namely, that which calls 
for a more or less complete description of a process. Only \\'ith 
regard to one element in the process can the single-answer form 
of question test information. WTien, however, this single ele- 
ment is w^ell chosen, because it is highly significant of the total 
procedure, the presence or absence of this element of informa- 
tion may be an exceedingly reliable index of the presence , or 
absence of the knowledge of the total operation. Even assum- 
ing that this is true, the single-answ^er question still suft'ers from 
another serious drawback. It is commonly recognized that one 
of the best tests of knowledge in a field is the manner in which 
a large variety of ideas, or pieces of information are brought 
together and focussed in the attempt to solve a complex prob- 
lem. Each idea may have little value in itself, as a revealer of 
knowledge, but the manner in w^hich it is combined and fused 
with other ideas is most indicative. While it may be claimed 
that occasionally even a single-word answer question may^ call 
for the marshalling of facts and the weighing of evidence, it 
must be admitted that the large majority of these questions 
make no such demand. But this does not mean that merely 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 55 

isolated pieces of information are all that is required. If the 
questions are well selected, they will center around the im- 
portant jobs and operations of the trade, and the element con- 
cerning which the question is framed will be so intimately and 
conclusively related to this operation that a correct answer 
will be forthcoming only from a workman who has successfully 
performed the operation. The best form of examination, from 
certain points of view, is that in which the examiner gives a 
problem to the examinee, and judges the power of the latter 
by the way in which the problem develops and enlarges, as 
time advances. Such a process is the true revealer of mind 
to mind, but it necessitates a highly trained examiner, and 
frustrates all attempts at objective scoring. 

We may conclude by saying, quite frankly, that the single- 
answer form of question is far from ideal as a test of degree of 
information, but it is the best instrument so far devised for 
testing this factor, when objective scoring by an unskilled ex- 
aminer is a requirement. 

Obviously the success of this new method of examination 
depends on the skilful selection of questions. There is a tech- 
nique in connection with the construction of good single-answer 
questions which will have to be discussed in much detail later. 
In the interest of proving to the reader that this specific type 
of question does serve to differentiate between men of different 
degrees of skill, we will pass on to describe the method used for 
testing the suitability of the questions. 



General Description of Method of Testing the Differentiating 
Power of Single-answer Question Method 

The differentiations which it was expected that any method of 
examination must perform were more or less laid down by army 



56 TRADE TESTS 

requirements. The army distinguishes in any particular trade 
between four types of men: 

1 . Novice, 

2. Apprentice, 

3. Journeyman, 

4. Expert. 

It is impossible to define exactly what is meant by each of 
these terms. While the novice is an intelligent adult who has 
had no experience in the trade, the apprentice is supposed to 
possess the information and skill of the man who has spent a 
reasonable amount of time as a learner or helper in the trade. 
At first the army defined the Apprentice as a ''man who has 
had not more than four years in the trade." While this defini- 
tion is sound for a great many of the older trades, such as car- 
penter, machinist, pipe fitter, etc., it breaks down completely 
for the newer trades, such as vulcanizing or radiator repairing, 
acetylene welding, oxy-acetylene welding, and others of a 
similar nature. In these occupations the period of learning is 
comparatively short. With reasonable intelligence a year, or 
even less, converts a novice into a workman of average skill. 
Any definition of an apprentice designating a period of four 
years' service is out of the question. As a matter of fact, the 
army system of classification is archaic, for the old apprentice- 
ship system upon which it was founded has largely ceased to 
exist. 

The journeyman was defined as an individual who has passed 
the apprentice stage, whatever may be the period which this 
apprenticeship occupied. In addition, the journeyman, accord- 
ing to army usage, must not have had exceptional experience or 
possess a thorough, all-round knowledge of the trade. When 
this is the case, the army defines the standing by a special term, 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 57 

which is unknown in industry. The term is the so-called expert 
rating. An expert, by army definition, is "a man who has had 
not less than five years' experience as a journeyman and who 
has shown a superior knowledge of the trade, or such other 
qualifications as are required of a foreman." 

The general method of testing the differentiating power of 
any set of questions was to administer them to 20 novices, 20 
apprentices, 20 journeymen and 20 experts. The questions 
were given individually to these 80 men, distributed in three 
centers, Newark, Pittsburg and Cleveland. The answer of 
each man to each question was taken down in short-hand, that 
is, a complete verbatim report was obtained. This complete 
report gave at once information in two important directions. 
In the first place, it served to show whether the question itself 
was effective, particularly whether it yielded a single answer or 
a large number of possible correct answers. Where the ques- 
tion was ambiguous, where a local term was involved, where 
the phrasing of the question was incomplete, the answers thereto 
showed at once its unsuitabiKty. The additional important 
information which these verbatim answers furnished was with 
regard to the relative difficulty of each question for novices, 
apprentices, journeymen, and experts. Without entering into 
technical details at this time it is obvious that the ideal type 
of question must fulfill the following requirements: 

1. It must be such that practically no novices are able to 
answer it correctly. If novices do succeed, the question does 
not test genuine trade knowledge. 

2. Apprentices as a group must be inferior to journeymen 
as a group in their power to answer the question, while the 
experts, as a group, must show distinct superiority to the jour- 
neymen in their answers. 

3. In addition the question must be such that it is answered 



58 TRADE TESTS 

by a ver\' large percentage of experts. If this is not the case, 
the question is distinctly too difficult for the purpose for which 
it is intended. 

The method of selection of the So men who were given the 
examination is of the greatest importance. It cannot be too 
clearly recognized that during this process, which we have just 
described, we are not measuring the trade standing of the work- 
men, but we are merely testing out our own method of proce- 
dure. The trade standing of ever\- man who was examined was 
known: only men who. according to the classitication of fore- 
men under whom they worked. feU weU within one of the di\'i- 
sions of apprentice joume>TQan. or expert, were examined. 
\Miere there was doubt with regard to trade experience or 
standing the individual was rejected. In this way the trade or 
industr}- furnished men who were knovMi to have three distinct 
levels of ability. These levels of ability ser\-ed as the standard 
for measuring the value and efficiency of the method of exami- 
nation. We were compelled to assume that the ratings given 
by foremen in consultation were correct. Given these three 
levels of trade ability, the feasibility of the questions was tested 
by the extent to which they were answered correctly by an 
increasing proportion of men as passage was made from the 
noxice class, through the apprentice and journe}Tnan group to 
the expert class. 

.-Vnother method, used at the beginning of the experiment, 
of testing the efficiency of such a series of questions is of interest. 
Throughout the process of the standardization of the series of 
questions ^ from which was to be selected the ffiial set of ques- 
tions, several experiments were made to gain some rough idea 
of the extent to which the whole group of questions differen- 

^ The method of collection of these questions v.ill be discussed in the 
following chapter. 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 59 

tiated between various levels of trade ability. The usual method 
of procedure, where such an attempt was made, was to ask the 
foreman or superintendent, before the examination was given, 
to rank the men according to their usefulness as tradesmen. 
Those who did the ranking were warned not to consider such 
traits as punctuality, loyalty, etc., but merely to rank the men 
according to their practical trade ability. This ranking, made 
either by the foreman or superintendent, alone or in consulta- 
tion, was retained by them, not being shown to those who were 

• 
to administer the trade test. The thirty or forty questions were 

then administered in a routine way to the tradesmen who had 
already been ranked. In this way two rankings were secured. 
The first was the result of expert supervision extending over 
several years; it was based upon close contact, under the actual 
conditions of the job. The second was a ranking given by a 
nontechnical examiner, as the result of twenty minutes exami- 
nation. The crucial test of the method is found in the degree in 
which these two rankings coincide. It was unfortunate that 
the method could not be tried out within a single plant on 
thirty or forty workmen who could be rated. This was, how- 
ever, for reasons given later, contrary to the practice, it being 
the rule not to examine more than seven to ten men in one 
plant. Such ratings as were obtained involved therefore but 
few cases: the results however show the close correspondence 
between the foreman's ratings and those given by the test. 

Pending the presentation of full evidence in the next chapter, 
it may be dogmatically stated that the Oral Trade Test suc- 
ceeded remarkably well in differentiating between men of dif- 
ferent degrees of ability as found in the trade. By selecting the 
mxost suitable questions it was possible to construct an exami- 
nation in which the novices, apprentices, journeymen or experts 
reached different levels of score. That is to say, the experts 



60 TRADE TESTS 

Table Showing Correspondence between Rating of Fore- 
man (F) AND THE Rating by the Oral Test (T) 









Lineman 


Test 






Group I 
F. T. 


Group 
F. 


// 
T. 


Group 
F. 


/// 
T. 


Grow/? 7F 
F. T. 


F. T. 


I 2 


I 


I 


I 


I 


I I 


I I 


2 I 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 2 


2 2 


3 4-5 
A 4-5 

5 3 

6 6 


3 
4 
5 
6 


3 
4 
7 
6 


3 
4 
5 
6 


4 
5 
3 
6 


3 3 

4 4 

5 5 


3 3-5 

4 3-5 

5 5 


7 8 

8 7 

9 lo 
lo 9 


7 


5 


7 


7 







as a group scored higher than the journeymen, the journeymen 
higher than the apprentices, and the apprentices higher than 
the novices. This does not mean that a few journeymen did not 
occasionally score as high as the lowest of the experts, and a 
few apprentices as high as the lowest of the journeymen, but in 
no case was there any great difficulty in drawing dividing lines 
between the classes, so that the overlapping was small. This 
process of deciding the critical scores for each level of trade 
ability is termed calibrating the test. When this calibration 
is completed on men of known trade ability, it can then be used 
for the purpose of ascertaining the standing of men whose 
proficiency in the trade is unknown. 

To make the meaning of these critical scores perfectly clear * 
the journeyman rating, 57-74, means simply this: when the 
set of twenty-one questions was administered to a group of 
average journeymen, in different plants and in different cities, 
the large majority of them scored between fourteen and eigh- 

* See following trade test: — Telephone Repairer Switchboard, p. 74 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 61 

teen answers, with credit of 4 points for each. This record is 
not a matter of opinion, nor is it the estimate of an expert. 
It is the actual performance of typical men engaged in the 
trade. Suppose then that the examination is given to an un- 
known workman, who answers fifteen questions correctly, or 
in other words scores sixty points. Under these conditions we 
may, with a high degree of probability, assume that his pro- 
ficiency corresponds with that of the average journeyman en- 
gaged in the trade. If, however, he had scored thirty-six points 
or seventy-eight points, we should have been justified in rating 
him as an apprentice in the first place, an expert in the second. 
It seems desirable at this point, even though the reader will 
not understand in detail the process by which the trade test has 
been constructed nor the method by which the standards have 
been deduced for the various trade levels, novice, apprentice, 
journeyman and expert, to present several complete trade 
tests. A careful examination of these tests will serve as the 
best introduction to the study of the intricate experimental 
process which has to be gone through in order to compile such 
a test. If the reader could try out some of these tests upon 
actual tradesmen ^ before reading further, it would not only 
establish his confidence in a method concerning which he may 
be skeptical, but it would also afford a very good basis for 
understanding the discussion which is to follow. The danger 
of inserting these tests before a full description of their method 
of construction has been given lies in the possibility of the 

^ The reader is cautioned against assuming that the content of an army 
trade is identical with the trade of the same name in civil industry. In more 
directions than one the ways of the army are past finding out. Certainly 
the strange trade names which they give within the army afford a proof of 
the above statement. For example, by an armature winder in civil life is 
commonly meant a person who merely does the winding of coils, whereas 
the army meaning of the term is much more nearly covered by the civil 
occupation of electrical repair man. 



62 TRADE TESTS 

reader thinking that a trade test is any set of questions, thrown 
together at random. Succeeding chapters will correct this 
notion, for it will reveal the fact that the construction of a 
measuring device for trade ability involves the most rigorous 
application of scientific method. 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 63 

TRADE TEST 
PAINTER. — General 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reprodticed by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What do you do to knots and sappy places before painting? 
A. Shellac. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. When is the puttying done on new wood- work? 

A. After priming (first coat). Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What is the brightest yellow used? 

A. Chrome. Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What is a finishing coat mixed with if a flat surface is required? 
A. Turpentine. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What is the best paint to use on wrought iron to keep it from 

rusting? 
A. (i) Red lead. Score 4 

(2) Graphite. Score 4 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What do you call the lower portion of a wall which is painted a 

darker color? 
A. Dado. Score 4 



64 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What hard wood besides mahogany is best for a mahogany finish? 
A. Birch. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. What do you use to clean the surface of the wood after using 

paint remover? 

A. (i) Benzine (gasoline). Score 4 

(2) Alcohol. Score 4 

(3) Vinegar. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. What do you use to bleach an exposed oak door before refinishing? 
A. Oxalic acid. Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What do you use for rubbing down enamels for a dull finish? 
A. Pumice. Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What is used to dissolve oxalic acid? 

A. Water. Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What do you call the operation of pouring paint from one bucket 

into another? 
A. Boxing. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What device is used for working just outside of a single window 

on a high building? 
A. Jack. Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What is the proper way to clean off an alligatored surface on the 

inside of a hardwood door? 
A. Paint (varnish) remover. Score 4 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What is applied first on porous wood to get a natural finish? 

A. Filler. Score 4 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 65 

QUESTION 16 

Q. How would you care for a paint brush after being used for the 

first time? 
A. Lay out. Score 4 

QUESTION 17 

Q. What stain do you get by mixing Van Dyke brown, ground Japan, . 

rose lake and rose pink? 
A. Mahogany. Score 4 

QUESTION 18 

Q. Why is a small quantity of blue or black added to white? 
A. (i) Bleach (whiten). Score 4 

(2) Keep from turning yellow. Score 4 

QUESTION 19 

Q. What color must be used in stain to get a brown mahogany finish? 
A. Van Dyke brown. Score 4 

QUESTION 20 

Q. What color is Dutch pink? 

A. Yellow (ochre) (mustard). Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

27 and below N 

28 and 29 A — 

30 to 49 inclusive A 

50 and 51 A + 

52 and 53 T - 

54 to 65 inclusive J 

66 and 67 J + 

68 and above • E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



66 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 
BLACKSMITH. — Forger, Hammersmith 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What keeps the top die from slipping back and forth? 

A. Key (pin) (dowel). Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What anvil tool do you use for smoothing off the surface of a 

forgmg? 
A. Flatter. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. To what is the top die fastened? 

A. Ram (head). Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. How are the handles of large forge tongs held together while 

carrying work? 
A. Link (ring). Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What do you use for measuring the size of work while forging? 
A. Calipers. Score 4 

QUESTION 6 

Q. To what color do you draw a cold chisel for cutting cast iron? 
A. Blue. Score 4 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 67 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What is the shape of the hole in a bolster for making a flatter? 
A. Square. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. What is the man called who has charge of the work while it is 

in the fire? 
A. Heater. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. When using top and bottom dies to make a forging, what is the 
waste material called which forms around the forging? 

A. Fin (flash) (flange) (scale). Score 4 

QUESTION 10 
Q. What kind of oil is used for tempering? 

A. (i) Fish. Score 4 

(2) Linseed. Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What do you put on bottom dies so the billet will not be ham- 
mered below a desired thickness? 

A. Sizer (peg) (snap-block) (gauge). Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What will happen to a billet in a hollow fire if a piece of coke gets 

on it? 
A. Burn hole. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What tool do you use to cut off the end of a billet on a half circle? 

A. Gouge (circle cutter) (circle hack). Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. In drawing out a long, heavy bushing what tool do you use in- 
side of the bushing? 
A. Mandrel. Score 4 



68 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What kind of tongs do you use for pulling light pieces from the 

fire? 
A. Pick-up. Score 4 

QUESTION 16 

Q. What tool do you use under the hammer to make a 2-inch cir- 
cular hole in a disk 1 inch thick? 
A. Punch. Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

1 5 and below X 

16 and 17 A — 

18 to 31 inclusive A 

32 and 33 A + 

34 and 35 J - 

36 to 50 inclusive J 

51 and 52 J + 

53 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 69 

TRADE TEST 
CARPENTER. — Cabinet Maker 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. How can a bruise in a piece of wood be raised? 
A. (i) Wet. Score 4 

(2) Hot iron on damp cloth. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What is used to close the pores of open-grained wood before 

finishing? 
A. Filler. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. How can a bevel be cut with a circular saw? 

A. (i) Tilting (setting) table (top). Score 4 

(2) Gauge (guide). * Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. With what do you set the cut of the blade on a metal smoothing 

plane? 
A. Screw. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. With what kind of a joint is a table leg fastened to the rail of 

the table? 
A. (i) Mortise (tenon). Score 4 

(2) Dowel. Score 4 



70 TRADE TESTS . 

QUESTION 6 

Q. How is an oak log sawed to get the best effect of the grain? 
A. Quartered. Score 4 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What is the name of the largest pjane commonly used? 

A. Joint (fore). Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. What does the number of a saw mean? 

A. Number of teeth to the inch. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. What hand-saw would you use to cut a round piece out of a 
board? 

A. Compass (key-hole). Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What is done to the surface of the veneer and core before gluing 

to make the glue stick? 
A. Roughened (scratched) (tooth-planed). Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What is fastened across the width of the board to keep it from 
warping? 

A. Batten (cleat). Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What plane do you use to plane the end of a small board across 
the grain? 

A. Block (butt). Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. How is veneer J of an inch thick treated before gluing? 
A. Heated (steamed). Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What is meant by shakes in wood? 

A. Cracks (splints) (checks). Score 4 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 71 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What are two kinds of joints used for the front of a drawer in 

fine cabinet work? 
A. (i) a. Dovetail. Score 4 

b. Rabbet (lap) (tongue and groove). 

QUESTION 16 

Q. Why are doors made up of panels? 

A. Allow for shrinkage (swelling) (warping). Score 4 

QUESTION 17 

Q. What is used for roughing down varnish or shellac besides sand- 
paper or pumice stone? 

A. Steel wool (wire hair). Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

1 5 and below N 

16 and 17 A — 

18 to 29 inclusive A 

30 and 31 A + 

32 and 33 J - 

34 to 53 inclusive J 

54 and 55 J + 

56 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



72 TRADE TESTS 



TRADE TEST 
AUTO MECHANIC. — Auto Repairer, General 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What are steering column bushings made of? 

A. (i) Bronze (brass). • Score 4 

(2) Steel. Score 4 

(3) Babbitt. Score o 

(4) Cast iron. Score o 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What joint is there between the differential and the transmission? 
A. Universal, Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What is the best way to repair a badly cracked cast-iron trans- 
mission housing? 
A. (i) Weld (braze). Score 4 

(2) Rivet on a patch (plate). Score 2 

(3) Solder. Score o 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What damage would be caused if an engine became much over- 
heated through lack of water? 
A. (i) Score cylinders. * Score 4 

(2) Pistons seize (freeze). Score 4 

(3) Burn out bearings. Score 4 

(4) Burn (warp) valves. Score 2 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 78 

QUESTION 5 
Q., What are distributor brush-holder covers made of? 

. (i) Rubber (hard rubber). Score 4 

(2) Fibre. Score 4 

(3) Bakelite. Score 4 

Any metal, Score o 
QUESTION 6 

Q. What regulates the height of gasoline in the carburetor? 

A. (i) Float. ' Score 4 

(2) Float valve. Score 4 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What happens to the breaker points if the condenser is bad? 
A. Burn (pit) (foul) (carode). Score 4 

QUESTION 8 
Q. What two metals are cam-shaft bearings usually made of? 
A. (i) a. Bronze (brass). Score 4 

b. Babbitt (white metal). 

QUESTION 9 

Q. How are body springs fastened to the spring seats? 

A. (i) Clips (U-bolts). Score 4 

(2) Shackles. Score o 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What part of the carburetor governs the speed of the motor? 

A. (i) Butterfly (throttle) (shutter). Score 4 

(2) Air valve. Score o 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What are two ways of driving the cam-shaft? 
A. Chains and gears. Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What is the most common way to hold the wrist-pin in position? 
A. Set screw (cap screw). Score 4 



74 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What is the result if the wrist-pin set screw works loose? 

A. (i) Score (groove) cylinder. Score 4 

(2) Pin drop out. ' Score o 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What should be done in regard to the temperature of the motor 

before making any permanent adjustment on the carburetor? 

A. Warm it up. Score 4 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What will happen if the timing gear teeth bottom or mesh too 
deeply? 

A. (i) Make noise (grind) (roar). Score 4 

(2) Break teeth. Score o 

QUESTION 16 

Q. What are the two windings in an armature or coil? 
A. (i) a. Primary (low) (low tension). Score 4 

b. Secondary (high) (high tension). 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

13 and below N 

14 and 15 A — 

16 to 38 inclusive A 

39 and 40 A + 

41 and 42 J — 

43 to 55 inclusive J 

56 and 57 J + 

58 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



& 



■^G* 



SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS 

These questions are inserted to proA'ide the examiner with a means 
of guarding against the candidate's coaching for the examination. 
The Supplementary^ Questions should be used only when necessar}\ 
Not all of these questions should be asked any one tradesman. 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 75 

QUESTION A 

Q. What are the marks on the fly-wheel used for? 

A. (i) Timing (timing engine) (timing motor) Score 4 

(timing valves) (timing ignition). 
(2) Setting valves (setting cams) Score 4 

(setting cam-shaft). 

QUESTION B 

Q. If a cyUnder is scored from overheating, what repairs are neces- 
sary to put it in good condition? 
A. (i) Rebore. • Score 4 

(2) Regrind. Score 4 

QUESTION C 

Q. What is the best material to use to show the high point when 

scraping a bearing? 

A. (i) Blue (Prussian blue). Score 4 

(2) Lamp black. Score 4 



76 TRADE TESTS 



TRADE TEST 

TELEPHONE MAN. — Telephone Repairer. 
Switchboard 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. How does the wire chief notify the subscriber that his receiver is 
off the hook? 

A. Howler. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What voltage is used on a common battery system exclusive of 
. I ringing? 

A. 22 to 48. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What insulating material is use between the carbon plates of 

a protector or lightning arrestor? 
A.. Mica. Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. Where are the plugs inserted in a switchboard? 
A. Jacks. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What gauge wire is generally used for cross connections or 

jumpers? 

A. (i) 20. Score 4 

(2) 22. Score 4 

(3) 24. Score 4 



THE ORAL TRADE TEST 77 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What kind of current can flow through a condenser? 
A. (i) A. C. (alternating current) . Score 4 

(2) Pulsating. Score 4 

QUESTION 7 

Q. Through what part of the protectors do lightning discharges pass 

to the ground? 
A. Carbon. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 
Q. What metal are switch board relay contacts made of? 
A. (i) Platinum. Score 4 

(2) Silver. Score 4 

(3) German silver. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. With what instrument do you measure a condenser kick? 

A. Voltmeter. Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What are cable skinners always treated with to keep out moisture? 
A. (i) Wax. Score 4 

(2) Paraffin. Score 4 

(3) Shellac. Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What does E.M.F. mean? 

A. Electromotive force. Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What do the marks 2 M.F. on a condenser mean? 

A. 2 microfarads. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 
Q. What is the voltage of a dry cell? 



2' 



Score 4 



78 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What is meant by I.D.F. in a large telephone office? 

A. Intermediate distributing frame. Score 4 

QUESTION 15 
Q. Name in order the first five colors in the switchboard cable color 

code. 
A. (i) a. Blue. Score 4 

b. Orange. 

c. Green. 

d. Brown. 

e. Slate. 

Note: All required. No partial credits. 

QUESTION 16 

Q. What is the voltage of a one-cell storage battery? 
A. 2 to 2.6. Score 4 

QUESTION 17 

Q. What part of the station apparatus prevents the flow of direct 

current through the circuit? 
A. Condenser. Score 4 

QUESTION 18 

Q. What is the name of the third talking circuit where only two pairs 

of wires are used? 
A. Phantom. Score 4 

QUESTION 19 

Q. Why are wires twisted in pairs? 

A. (i) Prevent induction. Score 4 

(2) Prevent cross talk. Score 4 

QUESTION 20 

Q. What is the usual resistance of a magneto telephone receiver? 

A. 65 to 100. Score 4 



THE ORx\L TRADE TEST • 79 



QUESTION 21 
Q. At a temperature of 80° Fahrenheit what allowance should be 

made in hydrometer reading? 
A. 3. Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

20 and below N 

21 and 22 A — 

23 to 54 inclusive A 

55 and 56 A-r 

57 and 58 J - 

59 to 72 inclusive J 

73 and 74 J + 

75 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



CHAPTER III 

COXSTRUCTIOX OF AX ORAL TRADE TEST 
(DETAILED PROCEDLREj 

Rando-m Sampling of Ability 

Ix any examination of trade ability, certain implicit assump- 
tions are made. It is advisable to see clearly just what these 
assumptions are, and the extent to which they limit the possi- 
biHties of an adequate examination. The statement has already 
been made that trade ability is a resultant of the combination 
of (i) certa.in skills; (2) certain elements of information. In oral 
tests we are miaking the somewhat broad assumption that the 
amount of skill can be measured indirectly by a determination 
of the amount of information possessed by the tradesman. 
In addition to this assumption made in the oral test, there is 
another which is common to aU t}'pes of examination, whether 
of the oral, picture, written or performance kind. It is obvious 
that whether we are striving to measure skill or information, 
it is utterly out of the question to examine the tradesman in 
aU the trade processes in which he is skilled; hke-^dse it is im- 
possible in a single examination to cover all the knowledge 
which is possessed by the tradesman. Only observation of actual 
work in a thousand and one jobs would enable any adequate 
estimate to be made of the majority of the " skills" possessed by 
the workman, while it would require a test of several thousands 
of questions in most trades, to cover the larger part of the 
information possessed by an ex-pert. 

Under these conditions we have to resort to what is tech- 

80 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 81 

nically known as the ''Procedure of Sampling." To sample 
means merely to test or examine by means of a portion or speci- 
men. A sample is a portion taken at random out of a quantity 
supposed to be homogeneous, the assumption being that the 
properties or qualities of the sample may reasonably be ex- 
pected to be found in the whole. This process is so familiar 
that a single illustration will make the meaning of the formal 
definition patent. Suppose a large plant receives from the same 
source several trainloads of what is supposed to be the same 
kind of steel. Before it can be used it is necessary to verify 
(i) whether its composition agrees with those qualities demanded 
by the specification; (2) whether all of the various loads are of 
the same kind, or whether, in other words, the material is homo- 
geneous. Before answer is made to these two questions, the 
common procedure is to take samples from this batch, and 
from that batch, at random; to submit these samples to chemi- 
cal analysis, and from this analysis of perhaps not more than 
a few ounces, the whole material, running into hundreds of 
thousands of tons, is taken or rejected. The accuracy of the 
final judgment, provided the analyses themselves are correct, 
depends on the degree to which the few samples taken are 
representative of the whole material, or as the definition has 
it, the extent to which " the properties or qualities of the sam- 
ples may reasonably be expected to be found in the whole." 

When, therefore, an attempt is made to measure general 
trade ability, either by oral questions, performances, or pic- 
tures, it is essential that the elements of information asked for 
or the skills which are tested, be representative as far as possi- 
ble of the total range of ability. Where a thousand questions 
w^ould by no means cover the ground, twenty questions have 
to be chosen with great circumspection, if there is to be a rea- 
sonable sampling of the total information. 



82 TRADE TESTS 

The questions must be scattered among the various proc- 
esses of the trade — no two questions should involve the same 
process. In this case the correct answer to the one question 
often gives an almost certain probabiHty of the correct answer 
to the second. What is required where only twenty questions 
are to form the final test is to have each question not only taken 
from twenty different important processes of the trade, but 
also cover the element in the process concerning which adequate 
knowledge is the most indicative of information with regard to 
the other elements which constitute the complete process. 
Twenty questions chosen carefully, from this point of view, 
may well cover a range of ground which several hundred less 
carefully selected might not touch. Especially when an at- 
tempt is made to conform to the single-word answer question, 
and the questions are secured merely from one shop or one 
expert, there is very apt to result a group of questions concern- 
ing a single process stressed in that one shop, or by that one 
expert. This group of questions must be replaced by the single 
most significant question, the significance of the question being 
dependent on the degree to which a correct answer is an almost 
certain indication of the presence of the other information con- 
cerning which there are no questions. 

As will be seen later, in the case of the performance test, the 
difficulty is greater. In the oral question a comparatively large 
area can be touched ; in fact, in the time consumed by the ordi- 
nary performance test it would be feasible to ask several hun- 
dred questions covering varied branches of the occupation. 
From the nature of the performances, the time consumed by 
the examination of the skill on a single job is such that, if several 
days are not given the examination, only one or two special 
skills can be examined. Under these conditions it is almost 
impossible to choose two or three typical tests which can be 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 83 

fairly taken as representative of the whole range of skills pos- 
sessed by the expert workman. 

It is now possible to discuss, in more detail, the essential 
stages through which a trade test must pass before it can be 
used as a satisfactory measuring device for trade ability. The 
various stages are: 

1. The compilation of the proposed questions, 

2. The preliminary testing of questions with elimination and 

revision, 

3. The final testing of questions for purposes of standard- 
ization, 

4. Statistical treatment of results, 

5. Selection oi final questions and calibration of the test. 

Each one of these stages will now be considered separately. 
It is the object of the description of these processes to enable 
the reader to construct for himself, with the minimum of waste- 
ful experimentation, an oral trade test for any occupation in 
which he may desire to hire men. 

Compilation of the Questions 

Paradoxical as it may seem, the success of the trade test 
method was largely due to the fact that those who compiled the 
questions were not expert tradesmen. This necessitated con- 
stant contact with trade conditions. By far the most important 
source of information consisted of experts .who were actually, 
at the time, engaged in the occupation. While the compiler 
of the question took advantage of the literature on the trade, 
the larger number of the questions came directly from foremen 
and experts. Even when a question was suggested by books or 
previous examinations in the trade, it was always talked over 
with numerous practical tradesmen before it was included in 



84 TRADE TESTS 

the first trials. The work of the compiler and the tradesman was 
usually complementary. While the trade expert furnished the 
necessary knowledge of the processes of the trade, the ques- 
tions that he propounded were usually of the vague, multi- 
answer t}pe. It was only in the rare case that the expert framed 
questions of the kind required for the purposes of an objective 
trade test. Such being the case the business of the compiler 
was, on his side, to analyze and examine the questions and 
problems proposed in order to convert them into questions 
which elicited only a single answer. 

Had the compilers themselves been familiar wath the trade, 
there is little doubt that the questions would have savored more 
of the polished desk and the quiet ofhce, than of the forge and 
bench. It was the enforced consulation, at the ver\' beginning 
of the assembly of the questions, with foremen and expert 
tradesmen, in their own shops, surrounded by the machines 
and tools \\'ith which they were working, that guaranteed the 
practical nature of the instrument. 

As soon as it was decided to work on a particular trade, the 
first problem was to determine the feasibility of a test in this 
field. Was it of such a nature that it contained the necessary 
informational elements . Did it permit of grading according to 
degrees of skill? In some trades it was found that the occupa- 
tion required simply the performance of a single set of opera- 
tions: there were no gradations among the members of the 
trade. A large number of the so-called occupations which 
modern production methods of industry have called into exist- 
ence, are examples of occupations in which there is almost no 
gradation in skill; the operation can be done or not done; there 
is no middle path. Wlien it was decided that the trade was 
such that the oral method could be applied, the next stage 
involved the collection of practical infomiation upon which 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 85 

the questions were to be based. This information was secured 
by visiting plants and talking with the men in the shop. After 
explaining the general nature of the problem to a foreman, a 
question which the author often put to the tradesman will illus- 
trate the procedure. ''Suppose you were hiring a man out of 
town, away from your shop and tools, what are some good trade 
questions you would ask, to be sure that the man had the trade 
ability he claimed?" Usually this question served to open up 
negotiations and question after question was forthcoming. 
Where this method was not successful in eliciting the informa- 
tion, the compiler would watch work in operation, and ask 
questions himself with regard to tools and operations. Nearly 
always, after a few minutes even the most secretive foreman 
became a ferment of questions. Most of them, however, were 
in a form totally unsuited to the purpose of the examination. 
The important thing is that this process furnished material 
upon which the compiler could work and which was not the 
result of the study of books or theory, but came out of the prac- 
tical experience of the man on the job. 

The type of question which, was commonly proposed is well 
illustrated by the examples which are cited in the "Aids to 
Interviewers" on page 35-51. Questions of this type have to be 
analyzed into their elements by the compiler, and reduced to a 
simpler form requiring a single answer. To illustrate this 
process some specific examples may be given with advantage, 
as indicating some of the more outstanding difficulties which 
were met. The common faults of the simpler forms of ques- 
tions were found either in their vagueness or in the chance they 
afforded even a nontradesman of guessing the answer. Especially 
was this the case m those questions to which the answer was 
merely "Yes" or "No." As examples of the first type thou- 
sands of questions, as they came from the foremen, could be 



86 TRADE TESTS 

given verbatim; The most common was the question calling 
for a description of a long process. "How should a spring be 
removed from a car? " This can be answered in a large number 
of ways and it cannot be scored objectively. In many ques- 
tions both faults were present, as, for instance, in a question 
proposed for blue printers. ''Which is better, to overexpose 
or underexpose a print? Why? " The first part of the answer 
is a guess:' the second part calls for a long explanation which 
only the expert could understand and no man living could 
score objectively. As an example of guess questions we 
may take the following: "Which way should the front wheels 
be turned, if the rear wheels are skidding to the right?" Here 
the answer — "To the right" — can obviously be guessed with 
a fifty per cent chance of accuracy. Or again a question of this 
type, in which the fact is less obvious. "In making a solid 
cylinder pattern, on which side would you put the tapered 
core print?" The pattern maker with the least knowledge of 
his trade knows that it must be either on the cope or drag side. 
Even though he has never seen the process, he has a fifty per 
cent chance of a correct answer if he guesses. A third example, 
requiring no trade knowledge whatsoever for a correct guess 
half the number of times, is " Can a milling machine be used for 
the spacing of holes without a layout?" The answer is merely 
"Yes" or "No." It will be seen that the questions of this type 
were framed without reference to the way in which they would 
meet the army problem. In nearly all cases, where the ques- 
tions did not admit of guessing, the answers were so long and 
involved that they could not be scored objectively, or in many 
cases even understood by the nontechnical examiner. It be- 
comes an easy matter after a little practice to convert a large 
number of these vague and guess questions, elicited from the 
foreman, to a form in which they can be employed. If instead 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 87 

of asking for information concerning the whole process, an 
essential element of the process is isolated, and a question 
framed with regard to this element, usually a definite objective 
answer may be secured. Often skilful rewording will convert 
a useless guess question into a most serviceable one. 

As many readers will be likely to construct series of questions 
for trades within their own industry, the following points, which 
were the outcome of many months practical work, will be of 
value. 

Guides for the Compilation of Oral Trade Questions with the 
Aid of Experts 

1. Analyze with the aid of experts the actual jobs in the trade. 

Watch the common processes of the trade and become famil- 
iar with the terms. It is absolutely necessary to have an under- 
standing of the typical operations of the trade, to ensure the 
correct choice of questions. 

2. The information secured from watching tradesmen per- 
forming their jobs should be supplemented by the study of 
trade manuals but great care must be taken to see that the 
trade manuals are of a practical nature. Furthermore, if any 
suggestions are received from the study of the manual, before 
these suggestions are employed, they should be talked over with 
expert tradesmen, to discover their suitability. 

3. With the aids above described, construct a few typical 
questions covering the important elements of the trade. Re- 
member that the expert is ignorant of trade test methods; 
while he knows his trade, he does not realize what type of ques- 
tion is wanted. A few sample questions will show him what 
is being sought. After he has grasped the method, elements 
of the trade which seem most obvious will often furnish the 
best type of trade question. 



88 TRADE TESTS 

4. Do not expect the expert to formulate the question. He 
can supply the information, but he can rarely word the ques- 
tion to fulfill the rigid requirements of the examination. The 
compiler himself must word the question from the information 
he receives. 

5. The wording of the question cannot be too simple. The 
author well remembers one which ran as follows: "What is the 
function of the float in the carburetor?" Two mechanics ex- 
amined in succession commented: "If you tell me what 'func- 
tion' is, I'll answer the question." 

6. The terms of the question should be as far as possible in 
the vocabulary of the shop. It is absolutely necessary to talk 
in the language of the tradesman. 

7. Avoid catch questions. They make the applicant sus- 
picious. Use the simplest possible language in the question. 
The test is to measure trade ability and not power to use the 
English Language. 

8. Make your question clear. It is impossible to be too 
specific. 

9. Whenever it is feasible in a trade, questions should be 
framed which demand precise numerical answers. If sufficient 
care is taken by the assembler to make the desirability of numeri- 
cal answers obvious to the expert, there are few trades in which 
some of the questions cannot be of this type. 

10. Avoid questions yielding a numerical answer to which 
there are limits. Such limit questions are very difficult to score, 
because of different practices in the trades. For example, in 
the question, /' How much stock should be left in a one and one- 
quarter inch hole for hardening and grinding?" the most com- 
mon answer is five to eight thousandths of an inch, but from 
job to job there will be variations, depending on particular con- 
ditions, which make the "5 to 8 thousandths" only one of many 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 89 

possible answers. It is almost impossible with questions of 
this limit type to get sufficient uniformity in answer to enable a 
nontradesman to score correctly. 

11. Questions should have only one part, and the answer 
should be such that a single word is sufficient. In this connec- 
tion a very good help is to decide the trade term that is desired 
for the answer, and then frame the question so that it will fit 
the answer decided upon and yield no other possible answer. 

12. As a rule questions beginning with the word ''how" 
should be avoided. They usually call for a description of a 
process which is lengthy. Such questions do not permit objec- 
tive marking. 

13. Be very careful in the use of the word " kind " or " type." 
Such questions are apt to be vague. For example, "Name 
four kinds of reamers." Here, the answer called for may be 
the names of makers, or sizes, or hand, machine, rose, expansion, 
etc. The same criticism applies to a question of this type: 
''What type of socket should be used when wiring in damp 
places?" Here the answer called for is "weather proof or por- 
celain," but as the question is framed a maker's name will often 
be secured. 

14. In order to avoid local terms, try the question out on 
workmen who have had very diverse training and experience. 
A question may appear to be fair for all the men in one plant, 
but incomprehensible to experts in other plants. 

15. The questions must be so chosen that they represent all 
degrees of difficulty, otherwise they cannot be expected to 
measure the three grades of trade ability. 

16. Questions must be avoided which are either included or 
assumed in other questions. 

17. Aim to secure a good balance in the number of questions 
on each aspect of the trade. The number of questions covering 



90 TRADE TESTS 

each aspect should vary with the importance of that element 
of the trade. Avoid questions which are concerned with a 
highly specialized branch of the trade, or found only in a par- 
ticular type of work. 

1 8. A consideration which must be borne in mind at all 
times is that any question, however important, from the stand- 
point of bringing out the principle of the trade, is useless if it 
calls for a long and rambling answer. The short, concise answer, 
with a single cue- word, is the great desideratum. 

19. Having secured questions from an expert, take advantage 
of every opportunity to try out these questions on the other 
experts, with whom consultation takes place. If the questions 
are not "fool-proof," this fact will be readily discovered. 

To return to the army procedure, it was usually necessary 
to consult at least five experts, in different plants, working 
under different conditions, to secure seventy or eighty questions 
which fulfilled the requirements stated above. By a more 
careful appHcation of these requirements and others of less 
importance, the seventy or eighty questions were sifted down 
to approximately fifty. These were then compiled into a set 
known as "The Preliminary Try-out Questions." A descrip- 
tion of this first testing of the questions is given in the next 
section. 

The Preliminary Testing of Questions 

The fifty or sixty questions which remained, after the first 
selection, were then administered to a number of tradesmen, 
usually from nine to twelve, the apprentice, journeymen and 
experts being about equally represented. 

The method of giving the examination was completely stand- 
ardized. Though detailed instructions as to the administration 
of a trade test will be given later, the general directions may be 
briefly outlined here. The examiner read the question just as 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 91 

it stood; even though experience showed that the first word- 
ing was wrong, no change was allowed in the question during 
the preliminary try-out. No help by gesture or emphasis was 
to be given the tradesman. The examiner was allowed however 
to use certain "follow up" questions when the answer given by 
the tradesman seemed to be to the point but did not corre- 
spond with that given in the test. These standardized follow-up 
questions were: 

(i) Anything more? 

(2) Any other name for it? 

(3) Any other way of saying the same thing? 

(4) Any other way of doing it? 

The full answer to each question was recorded verbatim, to- 
gether with any of the above '^follow up" questions, which 
were employed to elicit further information. Full notes also 
were taken of any significant comments made by the tradesman. 

It has been said that in this preliminary try-out tradesmen 
from different shops or plants were examined, in order to elimi- 
nate questions dependent on specialized methods or modes of 
expression confined to a single plant. In addition, to get the 
benefit of more than one point of view for revision, at least two 
examiners worked on each set of questions at this stage. 

A careful examination of the answers given by the appren- 
tices, journeymen and experts offered a ready means of check- 
ing each question for the following points: 

I. Is it applicable to the trade? 

II. Does it represent good trade practice? 

III. Does it need to be modified, supplemented to yield a 
suitable answer, or must it be eliminated . 

IV. Does it differentiate between the three different levels 
of trade ability? 



92 TRADE TESTS 

Further, the examination of the questions as a group showed 
the extent to which there was a representative sampHng of the 
range of trade processes. 

In the Kght of these answers, the fifty or sixty odd questions 
were then examined carefully one at a time. Certain questions 
were eliminated for one reason or another. Some were reworded 
or changed in form and in others additional answers were added 
which the try-out had shown were correct alternatives to the 
original answer. This process reduced the questions to a small 
enough number, usually thirty to forty, to admit of easy stand- 
ardization. Care was taken to see that the remaining questions 
were sufficiently wide in scope to represent different degrees of 
trade ability. These questions, with their answers, were then 
ready for the next stage of the process, namely the final try-out 
for purposes of accurate standardization. 

Final Testing of Questions 

The final testing of the question was merely an elaboration 
of the method used in the preliminary testing, which has just 
been described. Instead, however, of using three apprentices, 
three journeymen and three experts, the test was now adminis- 
tered, in full, in each one of the four groups, to twenty men who 
were known to be typical representatives of the four classes — 
novice, apprentice, journeyman and expert. Extreme care was 
taken to secure correct information concerning each man before 
he was rated as a typical representative of his group. The novice 
must be a man of good intelligence and good general knowledge, 
but he must have had no specific trade experience. The appren- 
tice must have had sufficient experience to lift him out of the 
novice class, but at the same time he ought not to have had a 
sufficient period in the trade to acquire the experience of an 
ordinary journeyman. For this purpose in those trades where 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 93 

four years is the usual length of apprenticeship it was custom- 
ary to examine men who had had not less than nine months or 
more than two years' experience. The journeyman, for the 
same reason, was not considered typical if he had that degree of 
intelligence and experience which might reasonably be con- 
sidered the mark of an expert. Under ordinary conditions no 
man of more than four years' experience as a journeyman was 
taken as a representative of his group. The greatest difficulty 
in assigning the proper trade status was encountered in the 
case of the expert. While a minimum of six or eight years as a 
journeyman was considered essential, mere length of experience 
was no criterion. In choosing men as representatives of the 
trade levels, apprentice, journeyman or expert, the joint judge- 
ments of several foremen, and that of the employer were used. 
Seeing that at this stage we were really testing the test by the 
extent to which these men of known trade ability were able to 
answer the questions, it can be seen how essential was the accu- 
racy of these trade ratings. In all cases the examiner was com- 
pelled to classify the men before the examination commenced. 
This was done to avoid being influenced by the manner in 
which the tradesmen answered the questions. 

In order to obtain as wide a sampling of tradesmen as pos- 
sible, the general rule was established that not more than six men 
should be examined in one plant. In addition to this precau- 
tion, three testing stations were used, one in Cleveland, one in 
Newark, and one in Pittsburg. This was done to get the benefit 
of wide geographical distribution. By this means any questions 
which involved the use of local terms could be detected and 
eliminated. In view of the fact that the trade tests were to be 
applied in all parts of the country, this freedom from geographi- 
cal bias was essential. 

The procedure of the examination was precisely the same as 



94 TRADE TESTS 

that which was to be used later in the camps, with this excep- 
tion — whereas in the camps the answers were not recorded but 
merely scored, in the final try-out, as in the preliminary one, 
a full verbatim record of the answer to each question was made. 
The examiner, in addition to being responsible for giving the 
question in the exact form and seeing that the answer given 
was recorded correctly by the stenographer, was also charged 
with the duty of scoring the question. The credits allowed for 
each question were from zero to four. The reason for the intro- 
duction of this graded system of scoring grew out of the rather 
vague type of question which, in the beginning of the work, was 
used in the examination. Later when the single-answer question 
was reduced in most cases to a single-word answer, the reason 
for the graded scoring ceased to exist. At the very beginning 
of the work there was much opposition on the part of the author 
to the use of partial credits, on the ground that this complicated 
the issue, permitting great subjectivity in the scoring. It waS; 
however, contended that a question which was partially correct 
must be given a partial credit. This was largely a concession to 
common opinion. Extensive experiments in the realms of edu- 
cational measurement had shown before 191 7 the inadvisability 
of using partial credits. As the one-word answer trade test 
evolved, the whole system was reduced virtually to an ^'all or 
none" method of scoring. An answer was either perfect and 
given a credit of four, or else it was wrong, in which case it was 
assigned zero. 

The answer furnished with the questions was in many cases 
merely a key- word. It was not expected that the tradesman 
would limit himself in his answer merely to a single word, though 
in the better form of trade question this was largely the case. 
The examiner scored the question perfect, provided the answer 
included the key-word. An illustration will make this clearer. 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 95 

In the test for Brass Melters this question is asked, ''What is 
done to the core to let out the gas when pouring?" The answer 
given in the test is "vented." In this case, provided the man 
in a descriptive answer used the term "vented," he was given 
full credit, though in many cases his answer would be a very 
short description of the process. Where there were two or more 
possible correct answers to a question, the most likely answer 
was given first, and the alternative answers were placed in 
parenthesis. In this case any one of the answers was accept- 
able and scored four. The candidate was not expected to give 
both answers. The following questions for the Printing Press 
Operator illustrates this point. 

Question, "Where do the form rollers get ink?" 

Answer, "Slab (plate), (table)." 

This procedure furnished very full information with regard to 
each question. In certain cases, when the material had been 
collected and carefully examined, it was discovered from a study 
of the journeyman or expert replies to certain of the questions 
that the original answers were incomplete. In this case the 
alternative answers were inserted. The particular questions in 
which this took place were then remarked, in the light of these 
alterations. This had to be done, otherwise the scoring in the 
standardization process would have differed from that eventually 
used in the camps. In view of the fact that the performance of 
the eighty men of known trade standing was establishing 
norms, it was absolutely essential to have the standards constant. 
A question for Lithographic Pressmen at the commencement of 
final testing was as follows: "What is put on the blanket cylin- 
der after it has been cleaned?" 

Answer, Sulphur (score 4) 
Chalk (Score 4) 
When the answers of the Experts were examined it was dis- 



96 TRADE TESTS 

covered that it was common practice to use soapstone. This 
alternative was, therefore, added to the possible answers and 
the records of the eighty men were remarked, to make the scor- 
ing coincide with this addition. This remarking necessitated in 
those cases where the men had only answered '^Soapstone," 
a change of credit from zero to four. 

It cannot be too clearly emphasized that at this stage it was 
absolutely impossible to attempt to alter the form or wording 
of the question. Additions could be made to the answers, for 
this involved merely remarking, but even the slightest altera- 
tion in the form of the question would have nullified all the 
evidence obtained. Where a question was wrongly worded, 
elimination was the only alternative. The question could not 
be altered without administering it again to the eighty men. 
The verbatim answers of the eighty men to all the proposed 
questions being assembled, the next stage in the process was 
the statistical treatment, from which resulted the selection of 
the final questions, and establishment of the standards of 
achievements. 

Statistical Treatment of Results 

The first step before commencing the statistical treatment 
proper was to examine roughly the answers to each of the ques- 
tions. A rapid examination of this kind revealed, at once, that 
some questions could not be employed. The most common 
causes of this rejection were: 

1. Correct answers to the questions were so varied that it 
was impossible to conform to the objective requirement of 
marking. 

2. The process in the trade upon which the question was 
based, on further examination, proved to be doubtful practice. 

3. The question proved to be suitable for one locality, but 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 97 

was not suitable for general use. Thus, a question might be 
well answered at Newark and fail to function in Cleveland and 
Pittsburg. 

4. On further examination a certain ambiguity would be 
revealed in the question. 

The rejections on the above points usually reduced the ques- 
tions by ten or more, leaving as a rule thirty to thirty-five 
questions, which were then subjected to routine statistical 
analysis. 

The objective of the statistical analysis was to make careful 
study of the answers and scores in each of the remaining ques- 
tions, in order to determine the relative value of each individual 
question and its suitability for selection as a part of the final test. 

In order to make clear this somewhat complex process of 
standardization, the chart containing the full statistical data 
for a typical test is reproduced. For economy of space only the 
results for the twenty final questions are recorded. Each dot 
denotes a correct answer for which a score of four points was 
given. There were no partial scores allowed in this test. The 
chart with the footnotes is self-explanatory. 

A careful study of this chart will facilitate an understanding 
of the whole statistical process. 

Generally speaking, if a trade test is good, a known expert 
when tested is able to answer all or nearly all the questions 
correctly; a journeyman is able to answer the majority; an 
apprentice a smaller part, and a novice practically none. This 
does not mean that each question should be answered correctly 
by all the experts, a majority of the journeymen, some appren- 
tices, but no novices. It is only a few of the more ideal ques- 
tions which show this gradual increase in difficulty, as we pass 
from level to level. The method by which this increase in 
difficulty was graphically represented will be now described. 



98 



TRADE TESTS 



i 
1 


20 NOVICES 


J 


j 


20 APPRENTICES 


J 


> 
J 


- 


c 


" 


' 


-■' 


= 


'- 


CO 


= 


2 


= 


- 




= 


£ 




^ 




1 


- 


.. 


'^ 


' 


.|. 


"IT 


H|=h;.|.i.H.NH.= 








































1 





u 




. 


• 




• !• 


• 1 •! • 


I*'*!"!-' I''**t I* 


17 


374 


^r 




























• 










1 


1 




a 


. 


. 




|J. 


...i :.:.! 1. |. . 


u 


2.8 


































1 





u 




• ' •{ 


\ ' < ., i 1.'.! 


8 


1.6 


























l. 




1 1 


1 


1 






• 1 • 1 • 1 


. • 


• • 




1 1 1-,.; 


.1 1. '> 


12 


2.4 


n 




• 




















• 








1 1 


I 


2 


.j 


. 




1 . 


• 




• 




1*1 




,s 


l.S 


6 
































1 1 


1 





(J 






o ' 


• •!• 




1 1 


1 1 




10 


2.0 


-§" 
































i M 1 












1 1 M 


1 1 . 




5 


1 






























j 1 1.1 


1 


.2 






4 


.8 


9 


























• 


1 






! 


.2 


|<'||(i«<<<> 1' >:| I'll* 


7 


1.4 


10 


































1 


















' 1 i . 1 ■ ■ ' , 1 1 








11 




• 














• 


















1 




2 


.4 


• 








• 1 1 • ■ . • i 


5 


1.0 


12 






































1 


.2 










• , I . ' . . ' . 


4 


.8 


13 
















































1 




•I 1 . , 1 ; 


1 


-.2 


14 


































• 








1 


.2 


: ' ' 1 • • 1 • 


3 


.6 


15 


• 














• 
























2 


.4 




18 


3.2 


16 


















• 
























1 


.2 


1 ; , ' • I • . . • 


; 


1 4 


17 






































. 








.[••. ,. .... ;• 


10 


3.2 


-18 


















































2 


•^ 


19 










. 
































1 


.2 


• ; • ' • • 1 • 1 . • • , 


• 




2.0 


20 






• 




































2 


.4 


.;. . . ... 


.U;.j 


.i.|...^> 




15 


3.0 






! 


- 


- 


3 


= 


= 


' 


, 


I 


= 


_ 




- 


_ 


= 


' 


= 


= 


„ 






IthrHit 


+1+ 


rr& 


^ 







20 JOURNEYMEN 


J 


1 


20 EXPERTS 


> 

J 


'3 


.1 

1 


2 

j 


1 

3 


- 


" 


« 


' 


fi.-hH^!='^'-^^^^-'^=;. 


-!..;„ -^:^ ,-x -H = - ::'--- -2 


=i. 










- 




is 


3.6 










19 


3.8 


3 


216 


1 




• 


• 


• 


• 




Ij 


3.U 






• 


• 




13 


3.6 


4 


192 


5 


. 


. 


. 


. 


1 


.'.i.'.,.; 1 1 '.;.|.l.|.:..j 


17 


3.4 


I i . . • . . i w ^ , . . I .,.;.,.; r 







. 


. 


19 


3.6 


7 


17C 


9 




. 


1- 


• 1 


'\'<'\-\ M i. ,-!•;. !•;•■-■ 


13 


3.2 


.;. . . ,....*...,., 1 


. 


• 


• 




17 


3.4 


£ 


184 


5 


. 






. 


. 




.io .!.;. 


• |.|>| |.|,|.{C 


IS 


3.2 






• 




• 


. 


19 


3.6 


11 


16C 


7 












• 






- 










.|.N 


1 • 


14 


2.5 






« 






. j ; > ^ c j 


' 


o 


• 


• 


. 


. 




18 


3.6 


H 


166 


10 




• 




• 


• 


. 






• 


• 


• 


• 






l.l. 


• 1 


^ 


15 


3.0 


• 




• 


• 


• 






•i'l-,. 






• 


• 


• 




• 


• 




18 


3.6 


15 


152 


11 


• 




• 




• 


• 








• 










I.,. 


1 . 




13 


2.6 




• 


' 


' 


c 


• 


« 


•I-I 1- 




• 


. 


• 




• 




• 




7 


3.4 


16 


140 


14 






• 




• 




• 




• 


• 


- 






...1 






12 


2.4 


• 


• 


• 


• 


« 








. 






• 








' 




e 


3.2 


18 


Hi 


13 




« 








. 




• 














. 1 


' 











1.2 




• 




• 






• 


•1 '1 - 


• 




» 







' 




• 


• 




6 


3.2 


21 


g« 


20 


c 


• 








. 






- 






. 




. 


1 


• 


• 






12 


2.4 


3 


• 




• 


. 






• l> 


• 


• 


c 


. 




• 


o 


• 


• 


• 




18 


3.6 


22 


148 


■12- 







• 


• 




o 






a 


> 




• 


<■ 


. 


1' 




c 


« 




12 


2.4 




. 






• 




' 


• !• 


• 




• 








• 


• 


• 




• 




17 


3.4 


23 


136 


17 


















c 




- 


• 






• 


• 




• 




s 


l.S 






• 


• 


•> 




. -1. 






• 




» 




• 




• 


- 


u 


2.8 


2b 


92 


19 




' 




• 




• 






^ 










1 










7 


1.4 


<■ 




• 


• 1 . 


•1 1- 


' 


. c|.l.,. 










14 


2.6 


27 


lOu 


18 


• 


• 




• 




• 


• 1 '-.| "•'• 






• 


. 


IS 


3.2 


o 


'■ . ; » 


, • ' • 1 • 1 I . • ' •,••;« i . .1.1. 




19 


3.6 


33 


212 


2 




• 




. |.|. 


1 1 ' i''»'-- 


• 1 ■ 






. 


11 


2.2 


• 






15 


3.2 


34 


140 


15 


. 


. 




•i-l-l- 








• 


3 


16 




• 




" 


18 


3.6 


35 


204 






• 






~- 


-. ■ o ' . 1. 




• 


1-1 






• 




3.8 


.36 


140 


18 


• 


• 




^.j-l |. . . 


. .1 l. ., .1. 


16 


3.2 






18 


3.6 


45 


180 


8 


• 


. 


. 




.i...i <.i.| i.{. 


16 


3.2 


.!.,.:.;.:.: : , , i i» 


> 


17 


3.4 


46 


200 


4 


^d 


i 


2 


s 


III ' 1 i ! 






i?;sj?;^s§sssss;s3S3^2J2|i 


s 













This chart shows all the statistical data used in the making of the 
test. Of the 50 questions originally assembled and used in the 
samplings, all but the 20 shown were rejected for various reasons. 
Each dot denotes a correct answer having a score value of 4. There 
were no partial scores allowed in this test. 

Column I shows the number of correct answers to each question 
by Novices. (Columns III, V and VIII show similar facts for 
Apprentices, Journeymen and Experts respectively.) 

Column II shows the average score of Novices for each question. 
Column I shows that on question 5, 2 out of 20 Novices scored 4 each, 
making a total Novice score of 8. Di\'iding by 20 gives an average of 
.4 as shown in Column II. (Columns IV, VI and VIII show similar 
facts for Apprentices, Journeymen and Experts respectively.) 

Column IX shows the total score of No^dces, Apprentices, Journey- 
men and Experts combined for each question, obtained by adding, in 
each case, Columns I, III, V, and VII, and multiplying by 4. The 
highest score indicates the easiest question, number i in Column X. 

The unnimibered column signifies number of questions in original 
series. 

Column X shows the 20 selected questions as they will appear in 
the completed test, arranged in ascending order of difficulty. 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 



99 



For the purposes of clearness in presentation, We shall sup- 
pose that the test was given to exactly twenty novices, twenty 
apprentices, twenty journeymen, and twenty experts. The in- 
formation shown in the table was collected with regard to each 
question. For an ideal type of question, the first horizontal 
line in the table would read as follows: Of the twenty 
novices, not a single one got the answer correct. Of the 
twenty apprentices, seven answered the question; thus the 
twenty apprentices scored among them 28 points, four points 
being given for each correct answer. Their average score, 
therefore, on that question was 1.4. This is obtained by 
dividing the twenty-eight points by the number of apprentices 
tested. Similarly, the bottom line would read as follows: all 
the experts examined answered the question correctly, thereby 
scoring, on the basis of four points for 
a question, eighty points. This made 
the average score of the experts ex- 
actly 4.0. 

The graphical representation of this 
table is shown in Fig. i. In this 
graph, the novice, apprentice, 
journeyman, and expert are distri- 
buted at equal distances ^ along the 
abscissa. The ordinate axis, rating 
from o to 4, records the average per- 
formance of the four groups examined. 
Thus, for example, an average score 
of one on the question, by a group of twenty, implies that 

^ To the statistically trained reader it will be obvious that these equal 
distances imply equal increments of total trade ability from class to class. 
This assumption is, of course, erroneous, but the convenience justifies this 
method, provided the reader keeps in mind that these distances, truly repre- 
sented, would be by no means equal. 



IDEAL QUESTION 




N 


A 


J 


E 


4 





7 


13 


20 

/ 


3 






/ 




2 




/ 


/ 




1 




/ 









/' 








Av. 





1.4 


2.6 


4.0 



Fig: 



100 



TRADE TESTS 



five of the twenty individuals gave correct answers. In the 
graph itself it is shown that the average apprentice scores 1.4, 

the journeyman, 2.6, and the experts, 
4.0. The question just described in 
which there is a gradual increase in 
difficulty as we pass from class to 
class is of course never obtained. It 
is, however, from certain points of 
view the ideal question, but, like most 
ideal things, is rarely found. Types 
of questions which approximate more 
or less closely to this, are, however, 
of common occurrence. In Figs. 2 to 
9 typical curves for single answers are 
given. These curves represent various 
types of questions. The curve in Fig. 2 indicates that this particu- 
lar question approximates very closely to the ideal type where 



QUESTION No. 5 




N 


A 


J 


E 


4 


2 


8 


16' 


19 


3 






f 




2 




/ 






1 


/ 


/ 









/ 








Av. 


.4 


1.6 


3.2 


3.8 



Fig. 2. 



QUESTION 


No. 1 




QUESTION No. 18 




N 


A 


J 


E 




N 


A 


J 


E- 


4 





17 


18 


19 


4 


20 


2 


14 


19 
/ 


3 




/ 






3 






/ 




2 




/ 






2 






/ 




1 


/ 








1 




/ 









/ 











^ 


^ 






Av. 





3.4 


3.6 


3.8 


Av. 





.4 


2.8 


3.8 



Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4. 



there is a gradual increase of difficulty from group to group. 
Question 5 is a ''trade question," so-called, because it differen- 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 



101 



tiates very strongly between novice and tradesman. It does 
not, however, serve to differentiate, in any very high degree, 



QUESTION No. 10 




^ 


A 


J 


E 


4 








6 


15 


3 








/ 


2 






/ 


/ 


1 






/ 










-^ 






Av. 








1.2 


3.2 



QUESTION No. 25 




N 


A 


J 


E 


4 


6 


18 

r 


20 


18 


3 




1 






2 


/ 


1 






1 


/ 



















Av. 


1.2 


3.6 


4.0 


3.6 



Fig- 5. 



Fig. 6. 



between apprentice, journeyman and expert. Question i is an 
example of an ''apprentice-journeyman question," so-called, 
because it differentiates sharply be- 
tween the novice and apprentice class 
on the one hand, and the journeyman 
and expert group on the other. 

Question lo is distinctly an "expert 
question," its most marked differentia- 
tion being between the journeyman 
and expert class. Question 25 shows 
a rather high novice score and no 
differentiation between apprentice, 
journeyman and expert; in fact the 
experts are distinctly inferior to the 
journeymen. For this reason such a 
question must be rejected. Question 30 is, of course, much too 
difficult, even for the journeymen and experts. It does not 



QUESTION No. 30 




N 


A 


J 


E 


4 


2 


1 


7 


7 


3 










2 ' 










1 




/ 


r 







-- 


^ 






Av. 


.4 


.2 


1.4 


1.4 



Fig. 7- 



102 



TRADE TESTS 



difterentiate sufficiently between the four classes. Questions of 
this kind cannot be used. Question 31 is of interest; here the 
experts as a group fall distinctly below the journeymen. For this 
reason such questions must be avoided. Question 42 shows no 
differentiation between the novice and the apprentice and the 
small rise in the curA'e indicates that the question was distinctly 
too hard for the journeymen and experts. Even in the expert 
group only one man in four was able to answer it. 

Questions of the first five t}'pe5 may be employed in the final 



QUESTION No. 31 




QUESTION No. 42 




N 


A 


J 


E 




N 


A 


J 


E 


4 


3 


7 


19 

A 


14 


4 








3 


4 


3 






/ 


\ 


3 










2 




/ 






2 










1 


/ 


/ 






1 






^^ 





















y 


/^ 








Av. 


.6 


1.4 


3.8 


2.8 


Av. 








.6 


.8 



Fk. 



Fig. 9. 



examination. It has been indicated that each kind of question 
has its value in the test. The main requirement is that the 
tendency of the cur^-e should be upward, but it is by no means 
necessary that it should approximate to the straight line. Such 
a linear relationship between score on question and trade status 
is. in many cases, not to be expected. In fact it may be very 
desirable to construct questions which do not show such a rela- 
tionship. \Mien it is necessary, for example, to dift'erentiate 
sharply between journeymen and experts, the question which 
shows Httle difi'erentiation between novice, apprentice and 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 103 

journeyman, but showing a rapid rise when the expert class is 
reached, is of great value. Questions where there is a distinct 
line of cleavage between the various groups must be selected 
to form a proper balance; that is, if we select a question pri- 
marily because it differentiates between novice and apprentice, 
in spite of the fact that the differentiation between journeyman 
and expert is small, we must take care that balancing questions 
are introduced which differentiate sharply between the two last- 
named classes. It will be remembered that a cursory examina- 
tion of the collected answers quite apart from any statistical 
study, eliminated some of the questions. For all questions not 
so eliminated, the graphs were drawn by the method described 
above. A detailed study of these graphs eliminated for the 
reasons given above a further number of questions. The re- 
mainder were then combined into the final form of the test. The 
only process which is left for description is that of the calibration 
of the test. 

Calibration of the Test 

When the final selection of questions has been made, the 
only problem that remains is that of establishing the standards 
which shall be considered characteristic of the expert, journey- 
man, apprentice and novice classes. Using the physical analogy, 
the process is commonly called "calibrating" the test. Usually 
in the army the final test consisted of fifteen to twenty ques- 
tions. This, however, is a purely arbitrary number chosen for 
purposes of speed in assembly and ease in administration. 
What was required of the army instrument was primarily speed. 
There is no reason why fifteen to twenty questions should not 
be replaced by forty or fifty questions, if such an addition fur- 
nishes valuable information with regard to the trade standing 
of the workman. 



104 TRADE TESTS 

The problem of calibrating the test would be an easy one if 
the following two conditions were fulfilled. 

1. If the classifications of the eighty men tested were per- 
fectly accurate indices of each man's total trade ability. 

2. If at each level of trade ability there was a distinct stand- 
ard of performance, w^h no overlapping of the various groups. 
Neither of these conditions was, however, fulfilled. It must be 
borne in mind that the classification into the four levels of 
ability was based on rather arbitrary standards. It depended 
on a combination of length of experience, type of work done, 
general intelligence, and a foreman's rating. In general the 
classification was reasonably reliable. It was certainly accu- 
rate enough to serve -as a very good test of the trade test itself. 
It could not be expected, however, that the ratings would be 
perfectly objective. We should expect to find that a few men 
rated as high class journeymen might well belong, if rated per- 
fectly accurately, to the expert class. Similarly, it might easily 
happen that a man was rated as an expert, where an omniscient 
rating would have placed him in the journeyman class. The 
same is true of all the divisions with the exception of the novice. 
What constitutes the novice in a trade is fairly objective. 

Again, even if the men were correctly classified according to 
their trade standing, we should still expect to find overlapping 
in the achievement of the various levels. It might be expected 
that a young, ambitious journeyman of, say, two years full 
standing in his trade, who could by no chance be rated as an 
expert, might well outrank a tradesman who was classified as 
an expert largely because of extreme skill in one operation, or 
on account of abihty as a foreman which, in the last analysis, 
was due rather to power over men than to high trade ability. 

These two considerations would make us rather expect a 
small overlapping in the performances of the various groups. 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 105 

When imperfection exists in the rating of the tradesman, as 
apprentice, journeyman or expert, the more accurate the trade 
test, the more certain would be overlapping. What has been 
said, however, must not be taken to mean that we cannot meas- 
ure the efficiency of a trade test by the extent to which it differ- 
entiates the tradesmen at the three known levels of ability. In 
the large majority of cases, it must show that the greater num- 
ber of men are placed by their score in the trade test at a level 
corresponding to their estimated ability in the trade, but it is 
not to be expected that all men will be rated by their score in 
the test at their real trade level. An occasional exception to a 
general rule is bound to occur; the theory of statistics teaches 
us not to be daunted by such exceptions, and provides a method 
whereby the correct weight can be given to the exception. Each 
question in the test was allowed four points. On this basis, 
all that is necessary is to determine how many points indicate 
an expert, how many a journeyman, how many an apprentice, 
and how many a novice. Obviously the way to do this is to 
note how many points were scored by the men who were rated 
experts in the trade when they were tested; similarly the num- 
ber of points scored by the journeyman, apprentice and novice 
so rated. The manner in which this information concerning 
the scores of each man was collected graphically is shown in 
the accompanying figure. The base line shows the scores on 
the test, varying from zero to eighty, eighty being the maximum 
on the basis of four points for each of the twenty questions. 
The apprentices, journeymen and experts are then arranged 
separately on four distribution curves, each black square repre- 
senting one man's position in the test, or his score. According 
to the different vertical levels it is known to which class this 
individual belongs. A glance at this table shows that the ex- 
perts as a group score higher than the journeymen, and the 



106 



TRADE TESTS 



journeymen higher than the apprentices. As was to be expected, 
however, a few of the experts are as low as some of the journey- 
men. The extent of the overlapping is brought out very 
clearly by the graph. When a diagram such as the topical one 
above has been constructed for each test, the problem is to 
draw the dividing lines between the various classes, so that the 
overlapping shall be a minimum. The method of determining 
the position of these dividing lines is that of ''trial and error." 
Imaginary lines are drawn at several places, and that line is 




This chart shows the distribution according to individual total 
scores of the 80 subjects used in standardization. Each square 
represents one man. The limits shown are the ones finally used 
in army testing. 



chosen which places the maximum number of men. according 
to their score in the test, in their correct known trade classifica- 
tion. Thus, for example, placing the dividing line between 
novice and apprentice at 19 makes the critical score of the 
novice group such that it included every novice that is tested. 
Only one out of the twenty apprentices, under these conditions, 
fell within the limits of score of the novice group. Similarly 
placing the point of differentiation between the journe}Tnan and 
apprentice class at 44, rated one apprentice as a journeyman on 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 107 

the test, and three journeymen were rated as high apprentices. 
The differentiating line between journeyman and expert being 
placed at 68 correctly classified sixteen of the experts and only 
altered the journeyman rating of one of the tradesmen. When 
these ''critical scores," as they are usually called, were estab- 
lished, the test was ready for final assembly and printing. 

Final Assembly of Test 

Other things being equal it is advisable to arrange the ques- 
tions in the test in the order of their difficulty. This serves the 
double purpose of establishing, by starting with easy questions, 
the confidence of the person under examination, even though 
he may be an expert, while in the case of the apprentice, it pre- 
vents discouragement due to early contact with questions which 
are quite outside his range of information. 

It has already been made clear that no alteration in the form 
of the question during this final assembly is permissible. Even 
the smallest verbal alteration can change the difficulty of a 
question sufficiently to make restandarization necessary. In a 
previous section it has been mentioned that even after the final 
testing has taken place, it is possible, providing the necessary 
remarking is done, to alter the answer, but when the critical 
scores have been established on the basis of these altered answers, 
no further changes are feasible. The matter becomes merely 
clerical, and any modification invalidates the accuracy of the 
test. 

The following tests taken from various fields, including among 
others the building, electrical, foundry and machinist trades, 
are reproduced to illustrate the wide application of this method 
of examination: 

Bricklayer. General. 

Pipe Fitter. General (Low pressure} . 



108 TRADE TESTS 

Pipe Fitter. Plumber (General). 
Structural Steel Worker. Iron Worker, Erector. 
Electrician. Generator and Switchboard Tender (D. C.). 
Lineman and Cableman. Telegraph and Telephon 
Foundryman. Cupola Tender. 
Foundryman. Brass Melter. 

Machinist and Mechanic. Automatic Screw Machine Operator. 
Machinist and Mechanic. Die Sinker. 
Blacksmith. Drop Forger. 
Butcher. 

Instrument Maker and Repairer. T}-pewTiter (Remington) . 
• Printer. Compositor. 
Surveyor. General. 
Tailor. 

Telegrapher and Wireless Operator. Radio Operator. 
Welder. Cutter. i^Oxy-Acetylene Operator.) 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 109 

TRADE TEST 
BRICKLAYER. — General 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What are headers used for in a brick wall? 

A. To bind (bond) (tie). Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What is half of a brick called? 

A. Bat. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What is used in the middle of a long wall to keep the line level? 

A. Twig (twigger) (twigging) (tingle). . Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. In coming to a height if there is a course of brick difference in 

the level, what do you call it? 
A. Hog. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What is a brick called when set on end? 

A. Soldier. Score 4 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What do you call a course of brick laid lengthwise of a wall? 
A. Stretchers. Score 4 



no TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What is a bond called when a header and stretcher are laid in 

the same course? 
A. Flemish. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. What do you call the top course of stone on a wall? 
A. Coping. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. What is a brick called when cut in half lengthwise? 
A. Soap (King). Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. In setting a sill course how much pitch do you give it? 
A. i to f inch. Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. How do you tie-in the front work of a building in plain bond 
work if you have no metal ties? 

A. (i) Clip (clip course). Score 4 

(2) Blind (secret) header. Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What is a brick called when set on the narrow edge? 
A. Rowlock. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What do you call the bond when you have a course of headers 

first, then a course of stretchers, and then another course of 

headers? 

A. (i) English. Score 4 

(2) Dutch. Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What is the course called from which an arch starts? 

A. (i) Spring (springer) (springing course). Score 4 

(2) Skew-back. Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 111 

QUESTION 15 

Q. How do you get your courses uniform? 

A. (i) Story (gauge) rod. Score 4 

(2) Story (coursing) pole. Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

12 and below N 

13 and 14 A — 

15 to 41 inclusive A 

42 and 43 A + 

44 and 45 J - 

46 to 50 inclusive J 

51 and 52 J 4- 

53 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



112 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 
PIPE FITTER. — General, Low Pressure Heating 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. How can a very short nipple be cut with a die? 

A. (i) Use chuck (nipple-holder). Score 4 

(2) Reverse the die. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. When ordering a reducing tee, what is the right way to give the 
size of outlets? 

A. (i) a. Run first. Score 4 

b. Side (branch) (bull-head) last. 

QUESTION 3 

Q. Name all the sizes of wrought iron pipes up to and including six 
inches. 

A. i, I, i h f, I, li ij, 2, 2i, 3, si, 4, 4J, 5, 6. Score 4 

Note: Take off one point for each one omitted or wrong. 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What is the standard push nipple or slip nipple used for? 
A. (i) Radiators. Score 4 

(2) Boilers Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 113 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What is the usual pressure in a low-pressure heating system? 
A. (i) I to lo. Score 4 

(2) I to 20. Score 2 

QUESTION 6 

Q. When exhaust steam is used for heating purposes, what takes 

the grease and oil out of the steam? 
A. Extractor (separator). Score 4 

QUESTION 7 

Q. Name two ways that water of condensation is returned to the 
boilers in large plants where high-pressure boilers are used. 
A. Pumps 

Traps. 

Injectors. 

Any two, Score 4 
QUESTION 8 

Q. How does a direct-indirect radiator differ from a direct radiator? 
A. (i) a. Direct-indirect heats air from outside. Score 4 

b. Direct heats air in the room. 



QUESTION 9 

Q. What is the difference between dry returns and wet returns? 

A. (i) a. Dry above water line. , Score 4 

b. Wet below water line. 



QUESTION 10 

Q. What is the least allowable fall between the lowest point on a 
steam main and the water line of a boiler in a small heating 
system? 

A. 10 to 24 inches. Score 4 



114 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 11 

Q. Name two kinds of coils made from pipe. 
A. Mitre. 

Manifold (header). 

Corner. 

Return bends. 

Any two, Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

8 and below N 

9 and 10 A — 

II to 26 inclusive A 

27 and 28 A + 

29 and 30 J — 

31 to 39 inclusive J 

40 and 41 J -f- 

42 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 

SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS 

These questions are inserted to provide the examiner with a means 
of guarding against the candidate's coaching for the examination. 
The Supplementary Questions should be used only when necessary. 
Not all of these questions should be asked any one tradesman. 

QUESTION A 

Q. What is the usual distance apart of pipe hangers? 
A. (i) 8 to 10 feet. Score 4 

(2) 5 to 12 feet. Score 2 

QUESTION B 

Q. How is the contraction and expansion of long straight runs of 

pipe taken care of? 

A. (i) Expansion (slip) joint. Score 4 

(2) Expansion bend (loop). Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 115 

QUESTION C 

Q. What fitting is used to make a short elbow connection? 

A. Street (service) elbow (''ell")- Score 4 



QUESTION D 

Q. What is a feed water heater used for? 

A. To heat water for the boiler. Score 4 



116 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 
PIPE FITTER. — Pltimber, General 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What is used in making joints in cast-iron soil pipes? 

A. Oakum and lead. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What do you use in bending lead pipe? 

A. (i) Spring. Score 4 

(2) Sand. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What are the proportions of metal in the two kinds of solder 
used by a plumber? 

A. (i) a. About 2 parts of tin to 3 of lead (about 40-60). Score 4 
b. Equal parts of tin and lead (half and half) (50-50). 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What are the two good types of water closet? 
A. (i) a. Syphon jet. Score 4 

b. Wash down (syphon) (flush). 

QUESTION 5 

Q. On what kinds of pipe do you get 

a. hub or bell-and-spigot ends? 

b. threaded ends? 

A. (i) a. Cast iron (soil) . Score 4 

b. Wrought iron (brass) (steel). 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 117 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What are air chambers used for? 

A. (i) Prevent (stop) hammering (pounding). Score 4 

(2) Prevent pipes getting air-bound. Score 4 

QUESTION 7 

Q. How should the connection be made between a galvanized 

wrought-iron pipe and a lead pipe? 
A. (i) a. Brass nipple Score 4 

b. Wiped joint. 

QUESTION 8 

Q. What pipe takes care of water closet discharge connection? 
A. Soil stack (pipe) . Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. Why is a four-inch soil pipe better than a larger one for an ordi- 
nary house? 
A. Scours (cleans) (washes) better. Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What is an expansion joint used for? 

A. (i) Allow for expansion. Score 4 

(2) Allow for contraction. Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. (1) a. What is the proper point at which to attach a back vent 
pipe to a vent stack? 
b. Give reason. 

A. (i) a. Above the fixtures (from crown of trap). Score 4 

b. So vent cannot act as waste pipe. 

QUESTION 12 

Q. Why are compression faucets preferable to self-closing faucets 

or fuller faucets? 

A. (i) Prevent water hammers (pounding) . Score 4 

(2) Prevent breaking of pipe. Score 4 



118 TRADE TESTS 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

9 and below N 

lo and II A — 

12 to 31 inclusive A 

32 and 33 A + 

34 and 35 J - 

36 to 42 inclusive J 

43 and 44 J + 

45 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 

SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS 

These questions are inserted to provide the examiner with a means 
of guarding against the candidate's coaching for the examination. 
The Supplementary Questions should be used only when necessary. 
Not all of these questions should be asked any one tradesman. 

QUESTION A 
Q. What fall should be given to house drains under the cellar floor? 
A. J inch to the foot. Score 4 

QUESTION B 

Q. What is used for soldering galvanized iron or steel? 

A. Muriatic acid killed (cut) with zinc. Score 4 

QUESTION C 

Q. How can the seal of a trap be protected against siphonage? 

A. Venting (ventilation). Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 119 



TRADE TEST 

STRUCTURAL STEEL WORKER.— 
Iron Worker, Erector 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY * 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What is a dolly bar used for? 

A. Bucking up rivets. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. Why is a snap used in a riveting hammer? 

A. To form the head on the rivet. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What should be done if there are bad holes in steel? 
A. Ream them. Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What do you call putting Unes through blocks? 
A. Reaving. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. Name two knots you can use to tie the ends of lines together to 

make a safe hitch. 
A. Two bowlines. 

A bowline and two half hitches. 
Square (hard) (flat) knot. 
Fisherman's bend. 

Any two, Score 4 



120 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 6 

Q. Name two tools used for shearing off rivet heads on heavy work. 
A. Buster. 

Cutter. 

B ^V Punch. 

Chisel bar. 

-Aqv two. Score 4 
QUESTION 7 

Q. Name two tools used for bucking up rivets where you cannot 

get a straight tool in. 
A. O^set bar. 

Goose neck doUy. 
Spring doUy. 
Jam dolly. 
Club doliy. 
Heel doUy. 

Any two. Score 4 
QUESTION 8 

Q. What standard stock should be used for driving three-quarter- 
inch rivets into one inch to one and five-eighths inch metal? 
A. One and three-eighths to one and seven-eighths inch. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. What is the usual way to reave up a set of triple blocks for a 

heavy load? 
A. From the center. Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. "^Tiat is the name of the single sheave block opening at the hook? 
A. Snatch (gate) (foot) block. Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What is the name of a boom which is attached to the side of a 
building, reaved from top of boom to building, and swung on 
a pivot? 

A. Chicago. ^core 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 121 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

8 ^nd below N 

9 and lo A — 

II to 27 inclusive A 

28 and 29 A + 

30 and 31 J - 

32 to 37 inclusive J 

38 and 39 J + 

40 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 

SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS 

These questions are inserted to provide the examiner with a means 
of guarding against the candidate's coaching for the examination. 
The Supplementary Questions should be used only when necessary. 
Not all of these questions should be asked any one tradesman. 

QUESTION A 

Q. What are drift pins used for? 

A. (i) Fairing (pinning) (lining) holes. Score 4 

(2) Making holes good. Score 4 

QUESTION B 

Q. What is a B & O Punch used for? 

A. Backing out. Score 4 

QUESTION C 

Q. What is an " Old Man '' used for? 

A. Drilling holes. Score 4 

QUESTION D 

Q. When you are reaving up a set of falls what kind of a knot do 

you end with to bring the blocks together? 
A. (i) Becket. ' Score 4 

(2) Bowline. Score 4 

(3) Two half hitches. Score 4 



122 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 

ELECTRICIAN. — Generator and Switchboard 
Tender, Direct Current (D.C.) 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. How are commutator coils fastened to commutator bars? 

A. Soldered. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What do you use to seat a brush? 

A. (i) Sandpaper. Score 4 

(2) Emery paper. Score o 

QUESTION 3 

Q. How are commutator bars insulated? 

A. Mica Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. How is the oil supplied to the bearings of a motor from the well? 
A. (i) Ring. Score 4 

(2) Chain. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What is used in place of a fuse to break the current in case of an 
over-load? 

A. (i) Circuit breaker. Score 4 

(2) Automatic breaker. Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 123 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What are the large copper bars called which are placed behind 

the switchboard? 
A. Bus (bus-bar). Score 4 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What are the three kinds of D.C. motors? 

A. (i) a. Series. Score 4 

b. Shunt. 

c. Compound. 

QUESTION 8 

Q. How should the air space be equalized if unequal? 

A. (i) Re-babbit (true up bearings) (line up bearings). Score 4 

(2) Reset magnet frame (pole pieces). Score 4 

(3) Shim up pillar blocks. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. How do you find the neutral point of brushes in a motor when it 

is running? 
A. By shifting rocker ring (holder) (yoke) until sparking at brushes 

is least. Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What would you do to cut out a coil of a D.C. armature in an 

emergency? 
A. (i) Use a jumper. Score 4 

(2) Bridge (short-circuit) commutator. Score 4 

(3) Bridge (short-circuit) coil. Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What is the usual purpose of a rotary converter? 

A. (i) To change alternating current (A.C.) to direct current 

(D.C). Score 4 

(2) To change direct current (D.C.) to alternating current 

(A.C). Score 4 



124 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What is used between two or more compound generators operat- 
ing in parallel to take care of the difference in voltage? 
A. Equalizer. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What kinds of field coils has a compound motor? 
A. (i) a. Series. Score 4 

b. Shunt. 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What horsepower is generated by a 400 K.W. generator? 

A. (i) 400000 divided by (over) 746. Score 4 

(2) About 535. Score 4 

(3) i| times the K.W. (kilowatts). Score 4 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What do you call the magnetism which remains in the poles after 

the field current is shut off? 
A. Residual. Score 4 

QUESTION 16 

Q. How do you increase the magnetism of the poles in a shunt- 
wound generator? 

A. (i) Cut-out resistance (rheostat). Score 4 

(2) Increase field strength (current in field). Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 
Score Rating 

12 and below X 

13 and 14 A — 

15 to 2S inclusive A 

29 and 30 A -|- 

31 and 32 J - 

33 to 55 inclusive J 

56 and 57 J-f 

58 and above E 

There is no E — or E -f rating^. 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 125 



TRADE TEST 

LINEMAN AND CABLEMAN. ^ Cableman, 
Telegraph and Telephone 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What is put over a connection of two wires in a cable where 

they are spliced? 
A. Sleeve (tube) Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What is the ordinary insulation on the wires in a telephone or 

telegraph cable? 
A. Paper. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What kind of a lead sleeve is used when it is impossible to slide 

the sleeve back on the cable? 
A. Spht. Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What is the " V "-shaped tool called which is used for cleaning 

lead sleeves and cables? 
A. Shave-hook. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. If the metal is too fine how do you thicken it? 

A. Lead (sleeve). Score 4 



126 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What is the joint called where two cables are spliced into one? 

A. ''Y" (multiple). Score 4 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What distance should a lead sleeve overlap the end of a cable 

sheath when a spUce is made? 
A. 1 1 to 2 inches. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. What is put around a sleeve and sheath so that the wipe joint 

will have an even end? 
A. Paster (gura-paper) (sticker). Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. What is the largest gauge wire used in cables? 

A. 10 to 14. Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. From what two materials are insulation sleeves made? 

A. (i) a. Paper. \ Score 4 

b. Cloth (cotton). 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What is done to a cloth before it is wrapped around a joint? 
A. Boiled. Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. How much larger in diameter should the lead sleeve be than 

the cable in a straight spUce? 
A. J of an inch, to i inch. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What do you use to get the metal on an upright joint? 
A. Stick (paddle). Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What is a Megger used for? 

A. Testing (measuring) insulation. Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 127 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What flux is used for soldering cables? 

A. (i) Stearic acid (styrene) . Score 4 

(2) Sperm. Score 4 

(3) Tallow (candle). Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score . Rating 

24 and below N 

25 and 26 A — 

27 to 37 inclusive A 

38 and 39 A + 

40 and 41 J — 

42 to 50 inclusive J 

51 and 52 J + 

53 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



128 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 
FOUNDRYMAN. — Cupola Tender 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What is the bottom lined with? 

A. Sand. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What do you do to the material as soon as the bottom is dropped? 
A. Wet (put water on). Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What is done to the bottom when all the iron has been run out? 
A. Drop (knock out). Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What do you tap a cupola with? 

A. Bar (rod). Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. How long is it before good iron comes down after the blast is 
turned on? 

A. 15 to 35 minutes. Score 4 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What holds up the bottom doors? 

A. Bar (rod) (prop). Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 129 

QUESTION 7 

Q. Why do you use lime-stone in melting? 

A. (i) Make run (fluid) (clean iron). Score 4 

(2) Flux. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. What tool do you use for chipping out a furnace in the morning? 
A. Pick Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. What is usually used in kindling a furnace besides wood? 

A. (i) Kerosene (coal-oil) Score 4 

(2) Gas. • Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What might happen if the cupola gases got in the blast pipe? 

A. Explode (blow up) . Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. How much higher should the bottom sand be at the back than at 

the front? 
A. I to 3 inches. Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What is the thickness of the lining of a cupola? 

A. 6 to 9 inches. Score 4 

QUESTION 

Q. How high above the tuyeres do you fill with coke? 

(Pronounced tweers.) 
A. 18 to 30 inches. Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. If the tapping hole in the breast is too long what will happen? 
A. Freeze (chill) (harden). Score 4 



ISO TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 15 

Q. Vrtat are the tuyeres fastened to? 

Pronoimced tweers). 
A. (i) Brick. Score 4 

(2) Wind-box. Score 4 

(3) Shell. Score 4 

QUESTION 16 

Q. Wliat axe the ingredients in cast iron other than pure iron? 

A- (i) a. Silicon. Score 4 

b. Carbon. 

c. Sulphur. 

d. Phosphorus. 

e. Manganese. 

Xote: Take ott one point for each one omitted or wrong. 
QUESTION 17 

Q. What will happen if too much phosphorus is used? 
A. (i) Hard-spots. Score 4 

(2) Hard (brittle). Score 4 

QUESTION 18 

Q. Why is ^losphorus added to the mixture? 

A. Make fluid rjin easier) liquid ). Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 
Score ' Rating 

16 and below X 

17 and 18 A — 

19 to 36 inclusive A 

37 and 38. A^ 

39 and 40. T — 

41 to 56 inclusive J 

57and5S J -h 

59 and above . E 

There is n: E — or E 4- rating. 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 131 

TRADE TEST 
FOUNDRYMAN. — Melter, Brass 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What will happen to a crucible if it gets wet before using? 

A. Peel (chip) (break) (explode). Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. If bronze scrap is hard to break what do you do with it? 
A. Heat. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What is the opening in the mold called where the metal is poured 
in? 

A. (i) Sprue. ^ Score 4 

(2) Gate. Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. Why is tin added to a brass mixture? 

A. Harden (toughen). Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What is put on top of the molten metal to keep it from oxidizing? 
A. Charcoal. Score 4 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What will happen if zinc is added when the copper is too hot? 

A. (i) Fuse (burn). Score 4 

(2) Oxidize (volatilize). Score 4 



132 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What is done to the core to let out the gas when pouring? 

A. Vented. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. What is a crucible made of? 

A. (i) a. Plumbago (graphite) (black lead). Score 4 

b. Clay. 
Note: Both required. No partial credits. 

QUESTION 9 

Q. What should be done to a new crucible before using? 
A. Anneal. Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. In a bronze mixttire of eighty-five and three fives what metals 

are used besides copper? 
A. (i) a. Zinc (spelter). Score 4 

b. Lead. 

c. Tin. 

Note : All required. No partial credits. 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What percentage of tin is used in a mixture for high speed 

bearings? . 
A. 10 to 16. Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What is the percentage of tin used for standard government 

bronze? 
A. 10. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What percentage of lead is usually used in a yellow brass mixture? 
A. I to 3. Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. How much metal does a No. 40 pot hold? 

A. 1 20 pounds. Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 133 

QUESTION 15 

Q. In what bronze mixture is there a small per cent of iron? 

A. Manganese. Score 4 

QUESTION 16 

Q, What are the three chief ingredients used in making German 

silver? 
A. (i) a. Copper. Score 4 

b. Zinc. 

c. Nickel. 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

11 and below ., N 

12 and 13 A — 

14 to 22 inclusive A 

23 and 24 A + 

25 and 26 J — 

27 to 42 inclusive J 

43 and 44.... J + 

45 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



134 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 

MACHINIST AND MECHANIC. — Automatic 
Screw Machine Operator 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE OX CLASSIFICATIOX OF PERSOXXEL 
IX THE ARMY 

Trade Test Dh-ision 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. When cutting steel where you want a high finish what kind of 

oil is used? 
A. Lard-oil. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. On what kind of material do you use the highest spindle speed? 
A. Brass. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What are the two most common makes of automatic screw 

machines? 
A. Brown & Sharpe ,B & S). 
Cleveland. 
Gridley. 
Acme. 

-Any two. Score 4 
QUESTION 4 

Q. How high should the parting tool be set in relation to the stock? 

A. Center. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What do you call the drill you use to start a hole with? 

A. Spot (centering) (counter- sink). Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 135 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What is apt to be the resiilt if there is not enough spring tension 
in the chuck? 

A. (i) Not release (open). • Score 4 

(2) Slip (not feed) . Score 4 

QUESTION 7 

Q. How many spindles are there on Gridley machines? 

A. (i) a. I. Score 4 

b. 4. 

QUESTION 8 

Q. What kind of a die do you use when the work spindle does not 

reverse? 
A. Self-opening (geometric) (automatic). Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. How much material should be left for grinding after hardening? 

A. (i) .005 to .015. Score 4 

(2) 6^ Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What kind of tool is used to cut internal grooves in the side of a 
hole? 

A. Recessing (necking) (swing). Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What is the first thing you would look for if the work came short? 
A. (i) Loose feed-finger. Score 4 

(2) Loose chuck. Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What kind of a tool should be used when the stock is so long that 

it will not stand a forming cut? 
A. (i) Box. Score 4 

(2) Hollow-mill. Score 4 



136 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 13 

Q. How much material should be left for the finishing cut when the 
roughing cut has been made by a box tool or hollow-mill in 
steel? 

A. .005 to .015. Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What make of automatic screw machine requires a special set 

of cams for each job? 
A. Brown and Sharpe. Score 4 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What shape of cam is used on a Brown and Sharpe? 

A. Disk (circular). Score 4 

QUESTION 16 

Q. If a sharp forming tool is set below center what will it do? 
A. Chatter. Score 4 

QUESTION 17 

Q. When a die or thread tool cannot be used what do you use to 

form a thread in the rear of a shoulder when working brass? 

A. Thread-roll (roller-die). Score 4 

QUESTION 18 

Q. What kind of a drill do you use for brass instead of a twist drill? 
A. Straight fluted (farmer) (flat) (gun). 

QUESTION 19 

Q. In making a one-eighth forty filUster head screw, what size in 

decimals should the body of the screw be before threading? 

A. .122 to .125. Score 4 

QUESTION 20 

Q. What would you use instead of a hollow-mill to turn a part of 

considerable length? 
A. Box turner (tool) (mill). Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 137 

SCORING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

19 and below N 

20 and 21 A — 

22 to 50 inclusive A 

51 and 52 A + 

53 and 54 J - 

55 to 67 inclusive J 

68 and 69 J + 

70 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



138 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 
MACHINIST AND MECHANIC. — Die Sinker 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE OX CLASSIFICATIOX OF PERSOXXEL 
IX THE AR^IY 

Trade Test Dhision 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What will happen to the dies if they aie overheated and cooled 

too quickly? 
A. Crack (break). Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. With what are die blanks colored for laying out work? 

A. Copper sulphate ^blue \'itriob .^blue stone; i^copperas . Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What can be done if a die is accidentally cut too deep? 
A. Plane ofi ixut off). Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What machine is used for sinking dies of irregular shape? 

A. MiUing [dit sinking; 1 profiler). Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What is the ordinary draft given? 

A. 7. Score 4 

QUESTION 6 

Q. Where is the edger located on a die? 

A. Side. Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 139 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What machine is used for cutting a straight groove between two 

deep holes? 
A. Shaper. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. What is used on a type to see if it is bedded? 
A. Blue. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. What is the waste metal called that is formed around the forging? 
A. Flash. Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What is the end of the forging called where it is joined to the 

stock? 
A. (i) Gate. Score 4 

(2) Sprue. Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What is a small curved file called? 

A. Riffler. Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. How much per inch should the shrinkage allowance be between 
a drop forging and the die for trimming the forging cold? 

A. (i) .012 to .200 Score 4 

(2) ^ to T%. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What is the usual finish allowance on a drop forging? 
A. -3% to I of an inch. Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What is the impression in the die called which is used just before 

the finishing impression? 
A. Blanking (blocking) (roughing). Score 4 

QUESTION 15 

Q. How is the die laid out so that the finished forging will be the 

right size? 
A. Shrinkage. Score 4 



140 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 16 

Q. What form of a die is used for removing the flash? 
A. Trimming. Score 4 

QUESTION 17 

Q. In making a forging with a large hump on one side why is the 

deepest impression in the top die? 

A. (i) Forms up better than do-^-n (fills top easier). Score 4 

(2) Keeps free from scale. Score 4 

QUESTION 18 

Q. How is a die cut so that the forging will not stick? 
A. Draft. Score 4 

QUESTION 19 

Q. What is used for packing die blocks when carboniziig? 

A. (i) Bone-dust. Score 4 

(2) Charred leather. Score 4 

(3) Charcoal. Score 4 

QUESTION 20 

Q. What carbon stee! is used for trimming dies? 

A. 60 to 90. Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

18 and below. , N 

19 and 20 A — 

21 to 47 inclusive A 

48 and 49 A + 

50 and 51... = J - 

52 to 69 inclusive J 

70 and 71 J + 

72 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 141 

TRADE TEST 
BLACKSMITH. — Forger, Drop 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What do you call the part of the machine that holds the upper die? 
A. Head (ram). Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What keeps the upper die from shifting back and forth? 

A. Dowel. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What do you call the plate that holds the bottom die? 

A. Shoe (sow). Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What keeps the hammer from falUng after it is up? 
A. (i) Clamps. Score 4 

(2) Latches. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What would happen if you would quench chrome vanadium or 

nickle steel in water, at a high heat? 
A. (i) Crack. Score 4 

(2) Break. Score 4 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What is the waste metal called that is formed around the forging? 
A. Flash (fin). Score 4 



142 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What is the crack or seam called which is formed by a fold in 
the forging? 

A. Cold-shut. ■ Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. How is the board fastened to the head? 

A. Wedges. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. What is the purpose of pickling a forging? 

A. (i) Remove scale. Score 4 

(2) Detect flaws (cracks). Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

•Q. What raises the hammer? 

A. (i) Board. Score 4 

(2) Rolls (spools). Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What is the impression in the die called which is used just 

before the finishing impression? 
A. Blanking (blocking) (roughing). Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. How is a die made so that the forging will not stick? 
A. (i) Draft. Score 4 

(2) Degrees. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What kind of wood is the board made of? 

A. Maple. Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What is the end of the forging called where it is joined to the 

stock? 

A. (i) Gate. Score 4 

(2) Sprue. Score 4 

(3) Tong hold. Score 4 



AN ORAL' TRADE TEST 143 

QUESTION 15 

Q. In making a forging with a large hump on one side why is the 
deepest impression in the top die? 

A. (i) Forms up better than down (fills top easier). Score 4 

(2) Keeps free from scale. Score 4 

QUESTION 16 

Q. How many times more than the weight of the hammer should 
the base weigh? 

A. 15 to 20. Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

18 and below N 

19 and 20 A — 

21 to 37 inclusive A 

38 and 39 A + 

40 and 41 J — 

42 to 55 inclusive J 

56 and 57 J + 

58 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



144 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 
BUTCHER. — Butcher 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. From what part are pork chops usually cut? 
A. Loin. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. How many ribs are cut to a rib of beef? 

A. (i) 7. Score 4 

(2) 8. Score 4 

(3) 9- Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What are two knives which a butcher uses? 
A. (i) a. Steak (cutting). Score 4 

b. Boning (trimming). 

QUESTION 4 

Q. From what part of the hog do you get picnic or California hanxs? 
A. Shoulder. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What is located between the first rib and the hip? 
A. Loin (porterhouse). Score 4 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What is the average weight of sweet-breads? 

A. i to I pound. Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 145 

QUESTION 7 

Q. From what is tripe made? 

A. (i) Stomach (belly). Score 4 

(2) Paunch. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. From what part of a hog is salt pork made? 
A. Belly. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. How many ribs are left on a chuck of beef? 
A. (i) 4. Score 4 

(2) 5. Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What is the average weight of a plate from a 500 pound dressed 

steer? 
A. 20 to 40. • Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. About what should a hind quarter of a 500 pound dressed steer 

weigh? 
A. no to 130. Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What should a ham weigh from a 150 pound dressed hog, trimmed 

to pickle? 
A. 10 to 15. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What do you call the strip of fat along the back from which the 

loin has been pulled? 
A, Back fat (fat back). . • Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What is the average weight of a steer liver? 
A. 9 to 12. Score 4 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What is the part of a beef between the front legs? 

A. Brisket. Score 4 



146 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 16 

Q. How old should a calf be before it is butchered? 
A. 4 to 5 weeks. Score 4 

QUESTION 17 

Q. What do you call a calf under 7 days old? 

A. Bob (slunk). Score 4 

QUESTION 18 

Q. Where is the cross rib located? 

A. Shoulder (fore-quarter). Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

16 and below N 

17 and 18 A — 

19 to 44 inclusive A 

45 and 46 A + 

47 and 48 J - 

49 to 57 inclusive J 

58 and 59 J + 

60 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 147 

TRADE TEST 

INSTRUMENT MAKER AND REPAIRER.— 
Typewriter Repairer 

(Remington) 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. How are the feed rolls cleaned? 

A. Alcohol. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. How many feed rolls are there on a Remington No. 10? 
A. 6. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. How many column selector keys are there on a Remington No. 10? 
A. 5. Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What do you use to bend a type bar? 

A. A nine-prongs. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What would be the result if the teeth on the rack would not mesh 

with pinion wheel? 
A Skipping (jumping) (wrong spacing). Score 4 

QUESTION 6 

Q. How are bell cranks fastened to the segment? 

A. Screws. Score 4 



148 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 7 

Q. How is type fastened to type bars on a Remington No. 10? 
A. (i) Pressed in (forced in). Score 4 

(2) Squeezed in. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. Name the different standard lengths of carriages on a Remington 

No. 10. 
A. (i) a. A (7I) (76 pica). Score 4 

b. B (9J) (95 pica). 

c. C (12) (120 pica). 

d. D (16) (160 pica). 

QUESTION 9 

Q. What are metal platens made of? 

A. Brass. Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What mechanism is inside of the governor cup? 

A. (i) a. Fan (propeller) (paddle). Score 4 

b. Graphite. 

c. Shot. 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What is shown by the small marks between letters on the face 

of the type? 
A. Style (name) (size) (kind) of t}^^ Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. How many teeth are there in a regular ratchet head on a Rem- 
ington No. 10? 
A. 29. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What is pitch for pica type? 

A. 10. Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 149 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What are the two kinds of dogs used on the escapement frame? 
A. (i) a. Loose (active). Score 4 

b. Rigid (stationary). 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What style pitch is used on an elite type machine? 
A. (i) 12. Score 4 

(2) 12^. Score 4 

QUESTION 16 

Q. What separates the tabulator blades? 

A. Comb. Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

1 2 and below N 

13 and 14 A — 

15 to 32 inclusive A 

33 and 34 A + 

35 and 36 J - 

37 to 50 inclusive J 

51 and 52 J + 

53 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



150 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 
PRINTER. — Compositor 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE OX CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE AR^IY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What does the proof reader's w.f. indicate? 

A. Wrong font. • Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What do you call a table on which the form is locked up? 

A. Stone. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. In what do you assemble the type from the cases? 

A. Stick. Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. How are types made so that they can be placed in the stick in 

the proper way? 
A. Nicked. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What do you use to get the type perfectly level in the form? 

A. Planer. Score 4 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What is the page number called? 

A. Folio. Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 151 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What space is generally used between words? 

A. 3-em. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. What machine is used to make the rule corners join perfectly? 
A. Mitering. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. What word do you use in proof-reading to show that a portion 

of type matter marked *' out " should be let stand? 
A. Stet. Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What do you call the large size letter that is used at the beginning 

of a job? 
A. Initial. Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What size type would you use on a 5 by 8 circular of 200 words? 

A. (i) (lo-point). " Score 4 

(2) (i2-point). Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What is the standard newspaper measure? 
A. (i) 13 ems. Score 4 

(2) 12 J ems. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What size em is used as a unit for measurements? 

A. Pica (i2-point) (12). Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What kind of spaces and quads are beveled on the back and 

front to clear the overhang of the letters? 
A. Script. Score 4 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What kind of quads and spaces are used for electrotype? 

A. High. Score 4 



152 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 16 

Q. What folio would be placed beside page 2 in locking up a straight 
16-page form? 

A. 15. Score 4 

QUESTION 17 

Q. By what name are block letters known? 

A. Gothic. Score 4 

QUESTION 18 

Q. What is the square of any body of type called? 
A. Em. Score 4 

QUESTION 19 

Q. What do you call the half-tone where the background fades away 

gradually? 
A. Vignette. Score 4 

QUESTION 20 

Q. How many 8-point ems in a square inch? 

A. 81. Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

1 2 and below N 

13 and 14 A — 

15 to 42 inclusive A 

43 and 44 A + 

45 and 46 J - 

47 to 65 inclusive J 

66 and 67 J + 

68 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 153 

TRADE TEST 
SURVEYOR. — General 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What is used to find the proper position for holding a chain when 

it is held above a tack point? 
A. Plumb-bob. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. How long are the red and white sections into which a sighting 

pole is divided? 
A. I foot. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What does a point marked P. T. signify on a railroad curve? 
A. Point of tangency. Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What would you do to get past a large tree on a transit line? 
A. Off-set. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. In running a line of levels, what are the permanent elevation 

points called which are established at various intervals? 
A. Bench marks. • Score 4 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What method is used to measure the distance across a lake too 

wide to be chained? 
A. Triangulation. Score 4 



154 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What is the point called that the levelman sets before changing 

the location of the instrument? 
A. Turning point. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. What is meant by a grade of 2 tenths of 1 per cent? 

A. 2 tenths to 100 feet. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. How is the target of a level rod equipped so that readings of less 

than one hundredth can be made? 
A. Vernier. . Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What kind of a curve is used to connect two points of different 

elevations? 
A. Vertical. Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What is the sight called which a levelman takes to get the H. I.? 

A. Back (plus). Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What do you use to turn the bubble adjustment screws on a 

level? 
A. Pin. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What do you call the lines on topographical maps which connect 

points of the same elevation? 
A. Contour. Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What data do you have to take to tie-in a point which is not on 
the line? 

A. (i) Distance and angle. Score 4 

(2) Two angles. Score 4 

(3) Two distances. Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 155 

QUESTION 15 

Q. At what points on a highway should elevation readings be taken 
to get an accurate profile? 

A. Changes in grades (high and low points). Score 4 

QUESTION 16 

Q. What reading has to be taken if a stadia shot is made from the 

bottom to the top of a hill? 
A. Vertical. Score 4 

QUESTION 17 

Q. What kind of a curve is used on railroads to lessen the diffi- 
culty of approach? 

A. Spiral (transition) (easement). Score 4 

QUESTION 18 
Q. What are two methods of finding a true meridian? 

A. (i) a. Polaris (north star). Score 4 

b. Solar (sun). 

QUESTION 19 

Q. What is the angle called which a line forms with the meridian 

as measured East or West from a North or a South point? 
A. Bearing (azimuth). Score 4 

QUESTION 20 

Q. What would be the azimuth of a line calculated from the North 
meridian if the bearing of the line is South, 35 degrees West? 

A. 215. Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

9 and below N 

10 and II A — 

1 2 to 37 inclusive A 

38 and 39 A -h 

40 and 41 J — 

42 to 67 inclusive J 

68 and 69 J + 

70 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating 



156 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 
TAILOR. — Tailor 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced hy permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What is used to hold the front of the coat firm so it can be shaped? 

A. (i) Canvas. Score 4 

(2) Haircloth. Score 4 

(3) Wigging. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What is used on the front edge of a coat to prevent it from 

stretching? 
A. Edge-stay (stay tape) (tape). Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. How should the canvas be cut for the imder collar? 

A. Bias. Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What size needles do you generally use for hand sewing? 

A. 3 to 9. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. What is silesia used for? 

A. Pockets. Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 157 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What six measurements must be taken for a pair of pants? 

A. (i) a. Outside. Score 4 

b. Inseam. 

c. Waist. 

d. Hips (seat). 

e. Knee. 

f. Bottom. 

Note : All required. No partial credits. 

QUESTION 7 

Q. How is a sleeve lining fastened at the top and bottom in a coat 

sleeve? 
A. Felling. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. How many yards of 56-inch cloth will it take to make a suit for a 

man with 38 chest and about 5 feet, 8 inches in height? 
A. si to 3|. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. How much longer should the sleeve lining be at the top than at 

the bottom? 
A. 2 to f of an inch. Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What kind of thread is used to sew on buttons? 
A. Linen. Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. Where is linen or hoUand used in a coat? 

A. Pockets. Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What is put on trouser seats to keep them from raveling? 

A. Serging (overcast). Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What is an edge used on overcoats called which is stitched fiat 

without being turned in? 
A. Raw. Score 4 



158 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What is used to cover wadding? 

A. Cheese cloth. Score 4 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What kind of edges would you make on a Carrs Melton overcoat? 
A. Raw. Score 4 

QUESTION 16 

Q. What do you call drawing two pieces of cloth together without a 

seam? 
A. Stoting (stomng). Score 4 

QUESTION 17 

Q. What garment is Kersey mostly used for? 

A. Overcoat. Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

1 5 and below N 

16 and 17 A — 

18 to 37 inclusive A 

38 and 39 A + 

40 and 41 J — 

42 to 56 inclusive J 

57 and 58 J + 

59 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 159 

TRADE TEST 

TELEGRAPHER AND WIRELESS OPERATORo 
Radio Operator 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What two codes are used? 

A. (i) a. Morse (American Morse). Score 4 

b. Continental (international). 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What is the unit of resistance? 

A. Ohm. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. Name two tjrpes of A.C. transformer used in wireless work. 
A. (i) a. Open. Score 4 

b. Closed. 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What are the two international normal wave lengths for commer- 
cial stations? 
A. (i) a. 300. Score 4 

b. 600. 

QUESTION 5 

Q. Name three types of antenna in general use. 

A. (i) a. T. Score 4 

b. Inverted L. 

c. Umbrella. 



160 TRADE TESTS N 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What is used for storing electro-static energy? 
A. Condenser. Score 4 

QUESTION 7 

Q. How should a temporary repair be made if a step in the starting- 
box is burned out? 

A. Jumper (short circuit) (bridge) (shunt). . Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. How should connections or joints in an aerial be made? 
A. Solder. Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. What are four common types of spark gap? 

A. (i) a. Plain (straight) (fixed) (open) (ordinary). Score 4 

b. Synchronous (synchronous-rotary). 

c. Non-synchronous (non-synchronous-rotary) . 

d. Quenched. 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What is usually used to clean motor commutators? 

A. (i) Sandpaper. Score 4 

(2) Canvas. Score 4 

(3) Emery. Score o 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What is the unit of inductance? 

A. Henry. ' Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What is included in the bulb of a three-element vacuum valve? 

A. (i) a. Filament. Score 4 

b. Grid. 

c. Plate (wing). 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What two things are liable to happen if you try to transmit with 

the spark gap open too wide? 
A. (i) a. Puncture condenser. Score 4 

b. Break down (puncture) transformer (secondary). 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 161 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What does the signal Q. R. M. mean? 

A. Interference. Score 4 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What is used to find the sharpness of the wave? 

A. Wavemeter (decremeter) . Score 4 

QUESTION 16 

Q. Name four frequencies usually used in wireless generators. 

A. (i) a. 60. Score 4 

b. 120. 

c. 240. 

d. 500. 

QUESTION 17 

Q. What is used for transferring the oscillations from the primary 
or closed circuit to the aerial or open circuit and to tune both 
circuits to resonance? 

A. Oscillation transformer (helix) (jigger). Score 4 

QUESTION 18 

Q. What are two ways to change D.C. to A.C.? 

A. (i) a. Motor generator. Score 4 

b. Rotary converter (dynamo tor). 

QUESTION 19 

Q. Where is the highest potential strain on the antenna? 

A. Extreme (free) (upper) (outer) end. Score 4 

QUESTION 20 

Q. What will happen if a motor is started too slowly? 

A. (i) Resistance coils (rheostat) burn out. Score 4 

(2) Starting box burn out. Score 4 



162 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 21 

Q. What is used to make a ground for a field set in very dry soil? 
A. Counterpoise. Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

9 and below N 

10 and II A — 

12 to 52 inclusive A 

53 and 54 A -f 

55 and 56 J - 

57 to 73 inclusive J , 

74 and 75 J -f- 

76 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



AN ORx\L TRADE TEST 163 



TRADE TEST 

WELDER, CUTTER. — Cutter, Oxy-Acetylene 
Operator 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 

Q. What is it called when the edges of metal sheets are welded to- 
gether in different spots to hold them in place for welding? 
A. Tack (spot). Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What chemical is mixed with water to form acetylene gas? 

A. Carbide. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What metal do you use to braze brass and cast iron together? 

A. Brass (bronze). Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What will happen if oil gets on the oxygen regulator or hose? 

A. (i) Explode (blow up). Score 4 

(2) Catch fire (burn up). Score 4 

QUESTION 5 

Q. How do you put the flux on the weld on light castings? 
A. (i) Dip rod in flux. Score 4 

(2) Put it on rod. Score 4 



164 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What is the best kind of rod to use when welding cast aluminum? 

A. Aluminum. Score 4 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What is done to a casting before welding to lessen the danger of 

warping when finished? 
A. Preheat. Score 4 

QUESTION 8 

Q. How should the edges of thick plates be prepared for welding? 

A. (i) Bevel (chamfer) (45 degrees). Score 4 

(2) Vee (V). Score 4 

QUESTION 9 

Q. How hot do you preheat large castings before starting to weld? 
A. Red. Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. How can you tell by looking at the hot metal that too much oxy- 
gen is being used in welding? 
A. (i) Boil (foam) (spark) (burn). Score 4 

(2) White (shiny). Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What is the best kind of fiux for brass? 

A. Borax. Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What simple flux can be used for cast iron? 

A. (i) Borax. Score 4 

(2) Soda. Score 4 

(3) Salt. Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What is the pressure of a large size oxygen tank? 
A. 1500 to 2200. Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. Why is a casting annealed after welding? 

A. (i) Prevent getting hard. Score 4 

(2) :Make (keep) soft. Score 4 



AN ORAL TRADE TEST 165 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What is the pressure of an acetylene tank when filled? 
A. 200 to 300. Score 4 

QUESTION 16 

Q. What are the names of two common forms of joints used in 

welding plates? 
A. Lap. 

Butt (straight). 
Flange. 

Any two, Score 4 
QUESTION 17 

Q. What is used to line up crank shafts when welding? 
A. V blocks. Score 4 

QUESTION 18 

Q. What is put in the acetylene tank to prevent explosions? 

A. Acetone. Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

19 and below N 

20 and 21 A — 

22 to 35 inclusive A 

36 and 37 = A + 

38 and 39 J - 

40 to 55 inclusive J 

56 and 57 J + 

58 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



CHAPTER IV 

ADMINISTRATION AND SCOPE OF THE ORAL 
TRADE TEST 

Instructions for Giving Oral Trade Tests 

The following are the instructions, with slight modifications 
which were issued for the administration of the oral tests. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR GIVING ORAL TRADE 

TESTS 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

GENERAL STATEMENT: 

In order that the Oral Trade Tests may be used effectively, it is 
necessary that examiners follow to the letter these ''Instructions for 
Giving Oral Trade Tests." Although the tests have been carefully 
prepared, they will not give uniform results unless examiners use 
them uniformly. Consequently, no change must be made in the 
tests themselves, or in the manner of administering them, until 
official notice is given to that effect. In case a certain answer comes 
repeatedly to a given question, giving the examiner reason to believe 
it is a correct answer, even though it is not recorded, the examiner 
should bring the matter to the attention of the officer in charge at 
the earHest possible moment. 

Even with the use of well-standardized tests under the most care- 
fully controlled conditions the rating of men by this means is sub- 
ject to error in some cases. This fact is mentioned to warn examiners 

166 



ADMINISTRATION AND SCOPE 167 

against yielding to the temptation of permitting their judgment of 
what the candidate knows to influence his score. Provision is made 
on the test record card for noting any facts which the examiner feels 
should be made a part of the test record, such, for example, as that 
the candidate was in unfit physical condition at the time of the 
testing. 

Preliminary to giving the test, the examiner will make a statement 
to the candidate which must cover and be limited to the following 
points: 

1. Why the test is given. 

2. The importance of thinking carefully before answering 
in order to do as well as possible. 

3. The necessity of making the answers brief and to the 
point. 

4. The fact that there are no "catch" questions. 

The exact wording is not prescribed because of the obvious 
difiiculty of making it suit all examiners under varying con- 
ditions. Note the following sample statement: 
* "We are going to give you a test to find out how much you 
know about your trade. Think carefully before you answer 
so as to do as well as you can. Make your answers brief 
and to the point. There are no catch questions in this test." 

GIVING THE TESTS: 

1. Ask each man all the questions (except the supplementary 
questions) in the order given. 

2. Be very careful to make yourself heard distinctly. 

3. Do not change the questions. 

4. Do not prompt the candidate in any way. 

5. Do not illustrate any terms with gestures. The tendency to 
illustrate such expressions as vertical, parallel, and the like, 
is to be particularly guarded against. 

6. Give no indication whatever, by comment, facial expression 
or otherwise, of the quality of the candidate's answers. 

7. Give special emphasis to underscored words: e.g., What are 
metal platens made of? What is the practical limit for 
vacuum? 



168 TRADE TESTS 

8. Guard against giving any clue to the answer through era- 
phasis on any particular word unless it is underscored. 

9. Numbering and lettering of answers: 

(a) Each complete answer is numbered. 
For example. 

Q. What is attached to the ribbon which causes it 

to reverse? 
A. (i) Eyelet. Score 4 

(2) Stud. Score 4 

In such a case either answer is a perfect-score 
answer and should be scored 4. 

(b) Each required part of an answer is lettered. 
For example, 

Q. What are the three most common styles of t}'pe? 
A. (i) a. Pica. Score 4 

b. EUte. 

c. Medium Roman. 

In such a case all three parts of the answer are re- 
quired for a perfect-score answer. Any one should 
be scored 2: any two should be scored 3. 

(c) Wlien the question calls for a specific number of 
items and more than this number are Hsted under 
"A," numerals and letters are omitted and instruc- 
tions for scoring are given below the last item to 
the right. 

For example, 

Q. Xame two tools used for shearing off rivet heads 

on hea\y work. 
A. Buster. 

Cutter. 

Chisel bar. 

Any two, Score 4 

10. Use of answers given: 

(a) One or more answers are given to each question as a 
guide to the examiner. It is not assumed, how- 
ever, that candidates are always required to answer 



ADMINISTRATION AND SCOPE 169 

in these terms. In general only the key word is 
given. 

(b) In some cases more than one perfect-score answer 
is given. These are acceptable answers whose 
quaUty cannot be readily inferred from the first 
answer. 

For example, 

Q. What lifts the ribbon when printing? 

A. (i) Ribbon shield. Score 4 

(2) Oscillating (actuating) arm. Score 4 

(3) Vibrator. Score 4 

(c) In some cases a zero answer is given. Such an 
answer should be scored o without repetition or 
follow-up questions. It is in effect a guess answer. 
The candidate should not be permitted to guess 
again. 

For example, 

Q. What kind of a seam is used in heavy pipe? 
A. (i) Rivet seam. Score 4 

(2) Lock seam. Score o 

(d) The general rules to be followed are: ' 

(i) In case an answer cannot be scored on the basis 
of the answer given, repeat the question or use 
appropriate follow-up questions as indicated in 
Sections 11 and 12. 

(2) In case of doubt as to whether an answer should 
be scored o at once or followed up, always fol- 
low up. 
II. Repetition of questions: 

(a) A question should be repeated, except as noted be- 
low in paragraph (b), under such conditions as the 
following: 

(i) When no answer is given, in order to make sure 
that the candidate heard clearly. 

(2) When the candidate says, "I don't understand 
the question," or the equivalent. 



170 TRADE TESTS 

(3) Whenever the answer cannot be scored and 
repetition of the question seems the appropriate 
procedure. 

(4) When the candidate is slow in answering. 

(b) An answer which is unequivocally wrong should be 
scored o without repetition or follow-up questions. 
For example, 
Q. When filing cast iron in a lathe, what happens 

to the cast iron if you run the lathe too fast? 
A. (i) Case-hardens it. Score 4 

(2) Glazes it. Score 4 

If the candidate should answer ''Softens it," he 
should be scored o. Repetition in such a case is 
practically equivalent to sa\ing, "WrongI Guess 
again." 

12. Use of follow-up questions: 

Whenever an answer cannot be scored on the basis of 
the answers given, the examiner should use one of the 
following questions according to the particular needs: 

(a) Anything more? 

(b) Any other name for it? 

(c) Any other way of saying the same thing? 

(d) Any other way of doing it? 

13. An answer which includes the correct answer but with addi- 
tional statements, is to be given full credit, except when any 
part plainly negates the correct answer. 

For example. 

Q. In what direction do the coils run in relation to 

the laminations on a drum wound armature? 
A. (Required answer.) At right angles (across). 

(Candidate's answer.) At right angles or 

parallel. 

"ParaUel" plainly negates "at right angles." 

Therefore the answer should be scored o. 

14. When the required answer contains a given number of items 
and the candidate exceeds this number, the examiner should 
say: 



ADMINISTRATION AND SCOPE 171 

"The question calls for (one), (two), (three), (four). 
What is your answer? " 
For example, 

Q. What two metals are cam-shaft bearings made 

of? 
A. (Required answer.) (i) a. Bronze. 

b. Babbitt. 
(Candidate's answer.) Bronze, babbitt, steel. 
(Examiner.) The question calls for two. What 
is your answer? 

15. When the question calls for a name and the candidate answers 
in terms of a description, the examiner should say: 

"The question calls for a name, not a description. 
What is your answer?" 

16. Whenever necessary the examiner may ask the candidate to 
repeat his answer. 

17. Do not permit the candidate to talk endlessly after he has 
made his answer. Give him the next question. 

18. Use of supplementary questions: 

If the examiner has reason to believe that the candidate had 
knowledge of the questions previous to the testing, he should 
ask him selected questions from the list of supplementary 
questions. A candidate who has had trade experience should 
score at least one-third the possible number of points. 
Since these supplementary questions are to be used only as a 
check, they should be asked only when necessary. No one 
candidate should be asked all of the supplementary questions. 
The score attained by the candidate on these questions should 
not affect his score on the test. Whenever they are used, a 
note to that effect, together with the score attained on these 
questions, should be made on the record card. 

Note: Supplementary questions discontinued. The above 
statement, therefore, refers only to the early tests. 

SCORING : 

I. Score the answer to each question before giving the next 
question. 



172 TRADE TESTS 

2. Score a perfect answer 4. 
Score a half -perfect answer 2. 
Score a failure o. 

If you cannot decide whether to score 4 or 2, score 3. 
If you cannot decide whether to score 2 or o, score i. 

3. (a) When a question consists of two parts, each part is to be 

allowed 2 points. 

(b) When a question consists of three parts: 
One part to be allowed 2 points. 

Two parts to be allowed 3 points. 
Three parts to be allowed 4 points. 

(c) When a question consists of four parts, each part is to be 
allowed one point. 

4. Partial credit scores are to be given only after repetition or 
follow-up questions fail to bring a perfect-score answer. 

5. (a) x\lternative terms are enclosed by parentheses. 

Those terms in the answer of which the words in paren- 
theses are alternatives, are underscored. 
For example, 

A. Add inductance (loading) coil, 
(b) WTien all that precedes the parentheses is alternative mth 
that in the parentheses it is not underscored. 
For example, 
A. Cut off air (choke it). 

6. Unless the question specifically calls for a range of values, the 
candidate is not required to give a range even though the 
answer is in this form. Either extreme or any value within 
the hmits is accepted. 

For example, 

Q. W^at is the usual distance apart of pipe hangers? 
A. 8 to 10 feet. Score 4 

If candidate answers 8. or 9, or 10 feet, he is to be scored 4. 

7. In the case of ^wo answers in terms of a range, the first answer 
represents the best hmits, and the second answer the extreme 
limits. 

(a) An answer which falls within the best limits is to be 
scored 4. 



ADMINISTRATION AND SCOPE 173 

(b) An answer which falls outside the best limits but within 
the extreme limits is to be scored 2. 

(c) An answer which falls outside the extreme Umits is to be 
scored o. 

(d) When the candidate answers in terms of a range, score 
each end of the range separately and take the average for 
the score for the question. 

For example, 

Q. How much stock should be left in a ij-inch hole 

for hardening and grinding? 
A. (i) 5 to 8 thousandths of an inch. Score 4 

(2) 3 to 10 thousandths of an inch. , Score 2 

Sample answers: 

(i) 5 to 10 thousandths of an inch. 

This should be scored "3" on the following basis. 
5 — Score 4 
10 — Score 2 Average score — 3. 

(2) 3 to 12 thousandths of an inch. 

This should be scored " i " on the following basis. 
3 — Score 2 
12 — Score o Average score — i. 

8. In all cases score the candidate's answer on the basis of what 
he says, not on the basis of what you think he knows. 

9. The candidate's Oral Test Score is obtained by adding the 
scores for the individual questions. 

10. The candidate will be rated according to instructions given at 
the end of each test. 

11. Divisions of trades. 

In old well-established trades, trade divisions generally are 
as follows. Many of the newer trades do not have the divi- 
sions well defined. 
N (Novice) 

A man with no trade experience. 
A (Apprentice) 

A man who has had not more than four years' experience 

in the trade. 



174 TRADE TESTS 

J (Journeyman) 

A man who has passed the apprentice stage. 

E (Journeyman Expert) 

A man who has had not less than five years' experience as 
a journeyman and who has shown a superior all-round 
knowledge of the trade, or such other qualifications as are 
required of a foreman. 

It will be noted that under the general directions for scoring, 
partial credits were allowed. This was necessary, particularly 
in the earlier form of tests, before the questions were reduced to 
the single-answer type. There is no doubt that the giving of 
partial credits is a mistake, for it introduces a subjective ele- 
ment in the scoring which is very undesirable. It was the experi- 
ence with this type of marking that led to the stricter adherence 
to the one- word answer method. With the more extensive use 
of the single-word answer, the giving of partial credits became 
unnecessary. If the candidate in his answer used the cue word, 
full credit (4) was given; if he failed to use this word, he was 
marked zero. In the future work all questions which do not 
admit of being marked in this way should be eliminated in the 
process of standardization. 

' The necessity for the accurate following of these instructions 
may not be quite clear to those who are unfamiliar with the 
process whereby the standards of achievements for the three 
levels of trade ability were established. Durhig this process 
the directions just given were followed to the letter, and on the 
basis of this procedure the ratings were determined. If any de- 
parture is made from this routine, the standards, carefully es- 
tablished by a laborious scientific process, have no meaning and 
cannot be used for rating purposes. 



ADMINISTRATION AND SCOPE 175 

The Attitude of the Tradesman to the Test 

A few words may not be out of place with reference to the 
attitude of the tradesmen to whom the tests were given. It is a 
common impression that the average workman resents any- 
thing that savors of an examination. The idea was so dominant 
at the beginning of the trade test experiment that it was 
seriously debated as to whether it would not be necessary to pay 
the men who served as the examinees. It was known that the 
employer would be willing to sacrifice the time of his men, but 
it was thought necessary to make payment to overcome the 
opposition of the men themselves. In actual practice the diffi- 
culty was not to persuade men to take the tests, but to get away 
from the plant without examining more men than the nature 
of the experiment demanded. On many occasions the author, 
after filling the quota for a particular examination, on the 
earnest entreaty of the men who had not been tested, proceeded 
to give them the test, though the records were discarded on 
leaving the plant. The men who were not tested felt themselves 
discriminated against. Only in one case out of several thousand 
was there the slightest objection raised by a tradesman to the 
procedure; in this case, further inquiry led to the fact that this 
particular workman was a thorough crank. The common atti- 
tude of the employer was also favorable and may be represented 
by one superintendent who once said on our leaving: ''I wish 
you men would come once a month just to show my boys that 
they don't know it all." 

Whether a similar attitude of mind will be found when these 
tests are used in the employment offices of the country depends 
almost wholly on the skill of those who are giving the tests. One 
thing is certainly true: the trade test, because of its close rela- 
tion to the man's occupation, will not have to meet the opposi- 



176 TRADE TESTS 

tion which is often found when psychological or skill prediction 
tests are employed. When a man has claimed trade knowl- 
edge, he usually expects, under present conditions, to be given 
some form of test. The trade test itself is only a more scientific 
refinement of present trade interview methods. It can be ad- 
ministered in as informal a manner as the other part of the 
employment interview. 

An Alternative Method of Constructing Oral Trade Tests 

The method of calibrating which results in certain ranges of 
scores determining the various trade levels of ability is perhaps 
the simplest device for rating. It has, however, certain grave 
disadvantages. One of these arises from the fact that an in- 
verted statistical process has been used. The standards of 
achievement were determined by assuming certain trade levels 
and then determining the ranges of scores which gave the least 
overlapping. That is, the passage is from known trade level to 
score; to reverse the process and pass from score to trade level 
is fallacious. For example — suppose in a particular set of 
twenty questions the following standards obtained: 

N 1-19, 
A 20-44, 

J 45-63, . 
E 64-80. 

The score 45-63 does not mean that all journeymen scored 
between 45 and 63 and no apprentice or expert fell in this range. 
It merely means that the range 45-63 gave the minimum of 
overlapping. As a matter of fact, it may be true that two of 
the experts and three of the apprentices fell in this class. A 
score, therefore, of between 45 and 63 does not indicate neces- 
sarily a journeyman abihty, but merely a high probabiHty of 



ADMINISTRATION AND SCOPE 177 

journeyman ranking, a lower probability of expert ranking and 
a still lower probability of apprentice ranking. It is always a 
matter of probability. Any range of score does not mean a 
single level of trade ability but a range of ability. 

The other disadvantage of the ratings being based on totals 
in all questions is found in the fact that the unsuitability of a 
single question, and the impossibility of its use, throw out the 
whole scheme of rating. On account of these two disadvantages 
another possible method of constructing the test in which these 
two difficulties are obviated may be mentioned. 

Suppose we consider three questions of ascending order of 
difficulty ; these questions when administered to twenty novices, 
twenty apprentices, twenty journeymen and twenty experts 
give the following results. 

Question No. of answers correct 

J E 

19 20 

18 20 

3 15 

The table indicates that question A was answered correctly 
by one out of the twenty novices, seventeen out of the twenty 
apprentices, etc. 

From the manner in which question A is answered it will be 
apparent that this question is indicative of apprenticeship 
ability, and it does not serve to differentiate the apprentice from 
the journeyman or expert. It does, however, separate the 
novice from the apprentice. The question may, therefore, be 
taken as typical of the level of ability of the apprentice. That 
is, a correct answer to the question gives every assurance that 
the applicant has at least apprenticeship standing. 

Similarly question B is characteristic of journeyman standing 
and question C indicative of expert standing. 





N 


A 


A 


I 


17 


B 


0, 


2 


C 









178 TRADE TESTS 

In this way a group of characteristic apprentice questions 
could be collected, the answering of each one of the questions 
giving a high degree of probability that the examinee had at 
least apprentice standing. The answer of a combination of 
questions within the group, would give an almost certain verdict 
as to whether abihty characteristic of the apprentice was pres- 
ent. Similarly groups of questions could be assembled for the 
journeyman and expert levels respectively. 

It is of course possible to work out for each question the 
probability that a correct answer indicates a given level of ability, 
but this refinement would hardly be necessary for ordinary 
work. 

With such a method of construction, the final form of the 
test would consist of a large number of questions, each ques- 
tion falling into one of three levels characteristic of the 
ability of the apprentice, journeyman and expert, respectively. 
The answering of a certain number of questions within a group 
would constitute the passing of that stage, The method would 
be essentially similar to that employed in the well-known Binet 
Simon Intelligence Test. Here there are groups of questions 
for each age level; in the trade test, these would be replaced 
by groups of questions for each trade level. 

Analysis of questions also reveals the interesting fact that, 
while a correct answer may be very significant as an index of 
class, a failure to answer is of little value for diagnosis, but 
this phase of the problem must be left. 

The advantages of groups of questions characteristic of the 
three levels are obvious. In the first place, only one or two or 
three questions within the group need be used to secure an al- 
most certain rating. In the second place there is no need to 
ask an expert a series of questions which are so simple that the 
ordinary apprentice can answer them. When examining a 



ADMINISTRATION AND SCOPE 179 

tradesman who is considered to be an expert, the examination 
can commence with expert questions, and perhaps three or four 
questions will settle the case. In the third place if a question 
proves unsuitable it can be eliminated without throwing out 
the basis of scoring. 

Scope of Oral Trade Test 

At the time when the oral trade test method was first em- 
ployed it was thought that its general justification lay in the 
fact that oral tests were of low cost, and that they could be 
applied to a large number of men in a comparatively short time 
with the minimum of equipment. It was not anticipated that 
they would, in many cases, more than distinguish between the 
presence or absence of trade abihty. Certainly at the com- 
mencement of the work not even the most optimistic would 
have ventured to predict the accuracy with which they deter- 
mined different degrees of ability. Although considered at the 
first a rough, quick method of measurement, the oral test proved 
itself, under the gruelling of camp conditions, to be the most 
accurate method which was used. On the whole it worked 
with most trades far more satisfactorily than the performance 
or picture test. However skeptical the reader may be of the 
idea that a workman's degree of skill can be determined by 
examinat'ons of this kind, the fact remains that under the 
most practical of all tests they more than vindicated the reliance 
which was placed in them. 

The oral trade test can be applied to a wide range of occupa- 
tions. Never was an attempt made to construct a trade test in 
any occupation which did not finally result in a set of questions 
which more or less fulfilled the necessary requirements. It is 
true that in certain trades the differentiation between the four 
classes, novice, apprentice, journeyman and expert, was much 



180 TRADE TESTS 

less exact than in others, but in no case was there a failure to 
get sufficient differentiation to justify the use of the method. 

The question as to whether this method can rightly be applied 
to a trade is found in the answer to the question as to the ratio 
between skill and information, in the particular trade abiHty. 
If the trade demands next to no information, and it is almost 
wholly a matter of dexterity, then the oral test is not suitable. 
Such trades as typist, truck driver, clerical worker, serve as 
examples of occupations which are clearly more adapted to the 
application of the performance test. The distinction between the 
mediocre and the expert truck driver is not to be found, as can 
be readily seen, in the greater amount of information possessed 
by the expert, but rather in the amount of skill with which he 
can use the little information which is required for handling 
the truck. At the other extreme we get occupations such as 
surveyor, power house man, where the whole emphasis is on 
information, and skill in the carrying out of the processes fol- 
lows almost automatically from the possession of the necessary 
information. In these occupations the oral trade test shows to 
the maximum advantage. 

It is interesting to record, however, that trades, which at 
first sight appear to be almost wholly a matter of skill, can be 
treated by the question-answer method. The trade upon which 
the author commenced work with the greatest trepidation, 
namely, general cook, furnished after more than usual care, a 
set of questions which differentiated with a fair degree of accu- 
racy between different degrees of cooking ability and knowl- 
edge, as found in workers in restaurants, residences and family 
hotels. This test, in part, is here reproduced, not by any means 
because it is one of the best, but because it shows the successful 
application of the oral trade test method to a field where success 
would hardly have been predicted. The extensive range of 



ADMINISTRATION AND SCOPE 181 

trades, for which oral tests were successfully constructed, is 
the best indication of their wide appHcability. 

For the general guidance of those who may wish to decide 
whether a particular trade lends itself to being tested by the 
oral method, the following rule may be laid down. If the trade 
requires for its successful pursuit any considerable body of 
information the oral method may be appKed. Where, however, 
the successful pursuit of the trade is dependent on the smallest 
amount of information and largely dependent on skill or dex- 
terity, use the oral test method with the greatest caution. It 
is almost certain that a performance test of some kind will here 
be the only accurate method of measuring trade ability. 

CooKS Test (Selected questions) 

1. What is added to milk to keep it from curdling when making 
creamed tomato soup? 

Soda. 

2. What do you put on fried sweet potatoes to make them brown? 
Sugar. 

3. What kind of bones are used to flavor bean soup? 
Ham. 

4. What is put in buckwheat cakes to make them rise when the 
cakes are mixed with sweet milk? 

Baking powder. 

5. What vegetables are used in succotash? 
Beans and corn. 

6. What is the color of the powder used in making lamb curry? 
Brown (yellow). 

7. What do you put in soup stock to make it clear? 
Egg (egg-shell). 

8. What kind of meat is used in Irish Stew? 
Lamb (mutton). 

9. How long do you boil American macaroni? 
Anywhere from 15 to 30 minutes. 

10. From what part of the beef is porterhouse steak cut? 
Loin (sirloin) (T-bone). 



SECTION III 
THE PICTURE TRADE TEST 



CHAPTER V 
THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 

The Picture Test Method 

The picture test method resembles so closely that used in the 
purely oral test that it will be unnecessary to discuss the picture 
tests at length. The stages passed through in its construction 
are essentially similar to those which have just been described 
for the oral tests. The account which is here given will limit 
itself, therefore, to the consideration of the following topics: 

(I) Reasons for the use of pictures. 

(II) General description of the construction of the picture 
test. 
(Ill) Presentation of several typical picture tests. • 
(JN) Criticism of this method of examination. 

Reason for the Use of the Picture Method 

Undoubtedly the major reason for the introduction of the 
form of test in which actual pictures of tools, machines and 
processes were employed was the attempt to get nearer to the 
conditions under which the trade is performed. The fact is 
accepted that the best prediction of ability in any activity is 
given by that test which in its essential structure most closely 
resembles the given activity. It is apparent, for example, that 
the most perfect test for a storage battery man would be that 
in which the individual under examination was given a number 
of actual jobs to do which were typical of the trade. This would 

185 



186 TRADE TESTS 

amount to a number of performance tests. In the absence of 
such a complete reproduction of the conditions of normal work, 
the next most perfect substitute is that in which the test opera- 
tions so closely resemble the trade operations that success in the 
former would be a sure indication of ability in the latter. While 
admitting that the performance method, given the necessary 
material and ample time, is ideal, the question arises whether, 
in the absence of all material and w_th a short period of examina- 
tion, it is not possible to use a form of examination which approxi- 
mates more closely to the performance test than does the purely, 
oral examination. In the type of test which has been described 
in the previous chapters, the question was merely stated in 
words. This involved on the part of the tradesman under 
examination a translation of these words into a mental picture 
or a mentally reconstructed situation. An illustration will make 
this clear. In the wagoner-blacksmith oral test the following 
question was asked: ''With what are the springs fastened to 
each other at the ends?" In order to answer this question the 
ordinary workman must first get in his mind a clear picture of 
the operation; in by far the majority of cases he will see, as we 
say, ''in his mind's eye" a picture of the springs. Without this 
process of reproduction a correct answer will be impossible, 
unless the question is so familiar and has been so often answered 
that no definite picture is necessary. It may be true that in 
very simple operations there is merely a verbal process, but in 
by far the larger number of simple operations and in practically 
all complex processes some kind of mental picture is essential. 
Contrast now the purely oral question with one in which a pic- 
ture is shown of the 'springs fastened to each other at the ends 
by the shackles with an arrow pointing to the shackles. In this 
case the question would be, "What do you call the pieces, 
marked with an arrow, which fasten the springs together at the 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 187 

ends?" To answer this question there is no need for a mental 
picture, as this term is ordinarily used. The second type of 
question, it is claimed, is a much nearer approach to an actual 
shop situation where a workman, pointing to the shackles, 
might well ask for their name. 

Where pictures of tools, machines and operations are present, 
the general impression produced on the tradesman is that the 
examination is much less abstract; although he is not actually 
handling the tools or running the machine, he feels much more 
at home and is more liable to have confidence in himself as well 
as trust in the examination. It has been already mentioned 
that one of the difficulties that was anticipated in the use of 
the oral test method was the presence of so-called ''motor- 
mindedness" in many tradesmen. That is, there were thought 
to be tradesmen who would do the job, but were completely 
unable to answer questions. The results of the oral tests tried 
out on hundreds of thousands of men have shown that such 
individuals virtually do not exist or if they do, they form such 
a small percentage of the total trade population that they need 
not be given consideration. This, however, does not prevent a 
large number of employers and workmen from still holding and 
being influenced by this popular notion. To such employers 
and tradesmen the picture test method will commend itself. 
WTiere they feel that injustice has been done by the oral method, 
the application of the picture method will serve as a further 
check. Every examination for its successful functioning de- 
mands the whole-hearted cooperation of the examinee. Any 
element which can be introduced into the test which will es- 
tablish confidence, both in the man himself and in the method, 
has great value. One of the difficulties which have to be faced 
in any plant when introducing any form of intelligence or trade 
tests centers around this point. Nothing is more essential than 



188 TRADE TESTS 

that at the end of any interview or test the workman . leaves 
with a feehng that he has had the maximum chance to show his 
abihty. The problem of not only giving a square deal to each 
employee but also of convincing him that he has had a square 
deal is one upon which it is impossible to lay too much em- 
phasis. A method of selection may be as perfect as possible, 
but if it arouses antagonism on the part of those who are sub- 
jected to it, it is a most dangerous instrument, and will, in the 
long run, if education does not lessen the antagonism, do much 
more harm than good. Quite apart from its power of differen- 
tiating between different trade abilities, on this score the pic- 
ture test possesses distinct advantages as compared with the 
purely oral method. 

Picture Tests Admit of More Detailed Questions 

Where a picture is presented, showing at a glance the various 
parts of the machine or the elements of the process, there is no 
limit to the detail of the questions which may be asked. Many 
problems which could not be stated in words, or at best would 
require a complicated description to be understood, can be 
asked in the simplest manner when reference can be made to 
a picture. One of the objections at first made to the oral test 
question of the single-answer type, was that it would have to be 
of such a simple order that there would be no possibility of 
using it to distinguish between the three levels of trade ability. 
While we know by experiment that this is not the case, there 
is no doubt in the mind of the writer that the picture method, 
when used to its limit, would give a much m^ore satisfactory 
differentiation between experts and journeymen than that 
which could be expected of the purely oral method. 

In addition, there was at its conception another justification 
for the picture method. It seemed that the assistance fur- 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 189 

nished by the pictures might enable a foreigner with language 
difficulty to be tested when the oral questions without pictures 
would fail to be understood. It was not anticipated that this 
kind of test could be used on a tradesman with no knowledge of 
English, because, even with pictures, the questions are in Eng- 
lish. But there was hope that the simpler form of questions 
which can be used with the pictures would enable a great num- 
ber of men with only slight language difficulty to do them- 
selves reasonable justice in the absence of a performance test. 
This expectation, however, was not realized in practice, for 
reasons which will be stated when we consider at greater length 
the relative disadvantages of this method of examination. 

The method of construction of the p cture or photographic 
test and the various stages through which it passed before com- 
pletion are so similar to those used in the building up of the 
purely oral test, that only a few of the more outstanding points 
of difference need be mentioned. The only essential point of 
divergence in the two methods is to be found in the aid given to 
the subject by the use of photographs and pictures. The same 
type of answer, preferably the one-word answer, was adhered 
to; the questions employed were altered both in their form 
and content to make them suitable for investigating the sub- 
ject's knowledge of the trade process to which the pictures were 
related. The picture material was obtained from many sources, 
of which the following wxre the most important: 

1. Text books and manuals of the trade. 

2. Trade journals. 

3. Actual photographs, specially prepared. 

4. Diagrams and sketches, specially made. 

5. Trade catalogues. 

The above will furnish an almost unlimited supply of pic- 
tures. More often these Dictures will be of the tools and ma- 



190 TRADE TESTS 

chines, and less often of the actual process of the trade. Where 
pictures of processes are required, resort usually has to be had 
either to more elaborate treatises on the trade, or else to photo- 
graphs, specially taken. 

Method of Constrtcction 

Given this bulk of the material, the essential point was to 
construct questions with reference to those pictures which had 
distinct significance in the trade. As may be readily seen, a 
great many trades use common tools and common processes, 
of which the simplest illustrations are the hammer, the wrench 
and the lathe. Obviously, it was necessary, as in the case of 
the oral question, to choose pictures of those tools, machines 
and processes which applied specifically to the one trade and to 
that trade alone. Thus, for example, to present a picture of a 
micrometer and to ask simply, "What is that? " is putting a ques- 
tion which would apply not to a single trade, but to practically 
every trade of the machinists' group. The questions that were 
constructed had to conform to these three material requirements : 

1. They must differentiate between the three trade levels of 
apprentice, journeyman, and expert. 

2. They must yield a single answer, preferably one word. 

3. They must apply specifically to the trade in question, 
and that trade alone. 

Again, consultation with expert tradesmen in the occupa- 
tion was the source of information for the construction of ques- 
tions conforming to the above requirements. While text books, 
manuals and catalogues give a very good indication as to com- 
mon tools and practices, it was necessary in every case to verify 
most carefully any information obtained in this way. Re- 
peatedly it was found that tools and processes described in 
even the best manuals did not conform to practice in the shops. 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 191 

When the tradesmen were questioned with regard to the suit- 
ability of a particular question or picture, they would often 
reply: ''Well, I suppose that it could be done that way. In 
fact, that would be the best way, but we do it in another way, 
using other tools and other machines." It was only by visiting 
Qumerous plants that it was possible to be sure that the ques- 
tion was universally suitable. Again, one of the great difhculties 
that were met was the differences in machines, turned out by 
the various makers for accomplishing the same purpose. Al- 
though the basic principlQs of the machines were the same, and 
the operations involved almost identical, it was discovered that 
the ordinary workman was at sea, when confronted by a picture 
of a machine which was slightly different from his own. Even 
such unessential differences as the power used in running the 
machine seemed to throw the ordinary workman off the track. 
When he was accustomed to a belt-driven machine, the fact 
that a slightly later type of machine, motor-driven, was pic- 
tured, was sufficient to cause a great deal of trouble. The 
workman would look at the picture and reply at once, ''This 
is not the kind of machine that I have seen. The ones that we 
use don't have this attachment." The same difficulty was met, 
though to a less degree, in the case of the more complex tools. 
Even very unessential differences were confusing. Times with- 
out number the tradesman when looking at the picture would 
say: " Give me a little time. I will have to figure this out. The 
tool I use is quite different from this." 

In spite of these obstacles, in the ordinary trades the large 
majority of the tools, most of the process and a considerable 
number of the machines, were universally known. Around 
pictures of these, with the help of expert tradesmen, the ques- 
tions were devised; as in the case of the oral questions, it was 
the expert who supplied the necessary trade information, while 



192 TRADE TESTS 

the compilers of the questions were responsible for framing the 
question so that it conformed to the requirements which we 
have discussed at great length under the oral trade test method. 
They will be found on pages 85-88. 

The detailed statement of the method of administration of 
the test will be given later; here it need only be mentioned hi 
passing that the examiner was supphed \\'ith the questions, 
while the tradesman was provided with a small booklet con- 
taining the pictures. The examiner then was responsible for 
seeing that the attention of the tradesman was directed to that 
picture concerning which the question was being asked. 

From this point on the procedure leading to the completion 
of the final test was similar to that described for the oral tests. 
These stages were: 

1. The preliminary testing of the questions, with elimination 
and revision by administration to three apprentices, three 
journeymen and three experts. 

2. The final testing of these questions for purposes of stand- 
ardization. 

3. Statistical treatment of the results. 

4. Selection of final questions and calibration of the test. 

It is unnecessary to describe the procedure characteristic of 
each of these stages, for they have already been dealt with in 
full for a particular set of questions in the oral method. 

Instructions for Gking Picture Trade Tests 

GEXER-\L STATEMEXT 

In gi\'ing Picture Tests the same instructions govern in the main 
as for giving Oral Tests. (See Instructions for Gi\'ing Oral Trade 
Tests.) 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 193 

GIVING THE TESTS 

(See Instructions for Giving Oral Trade Tests, paragraphs i to 8.) 

1. Every Picture Trade Test is prepared in two folders,* one for 
the examiner and one for the candidate. The Examiner's Folder 
contains the questions and answers for the test. The Candidate's 
Folder contains the pictures upon which the questions are based. 

2. Place in front of the candidate the folder containing the pictures. 

3. Precede each question by stating the number of the picture, to 
insure that the candidate is looking at the right picture while the 
question is being asked. 

4. The examiner may point to a picture instead of designating it 
by number if that is found more convenient. 

5. Repetition of questions: (See paragraph iia, Instructions for 
Giving Oral Trade Tests.) 

6. If the candidate gives an incomplete answer, or an answer so 
different from the correct answer that his knowledge cannot be 
judged, (See paragraph 12. Instructions for Giving Oral Trade 
Tests.) 

7. If the candidate points to the correct part of the photograph 
instead of stating the letter notation on that part, his answer is 
acceptable in that form. 

8. The Examiner may, at his own discretion, point to any part 
of the picture which is mentioned in the question but should be 
careful not to call attention to any part which will serve to prompt 
the candidate. 

SCORING 

1. In all cases score the candidate's answer on the basis of what 
he says, not what you think he knows. 

2. A perfect answer is scored 4. An imperfect answer is scored o. 

3. No partial credits are allowed. 

4. If a question can be answered in several ways, the acceptable 
answers are Hsted and numbered. The note "One sufficient" means 
that the candidate only needs to give one of the answers in order to 
obtain a score of 4. The note "Both required" means that the can- 
didate must give both of the listed items in order to obtain a score 
of 4. 

* Pictures are here reproduced in body of test. 



194 TRADE TESTS 

5. Equivalent words are printed in parentheses. The word in 
parentheses is equivalent to the word immediately preceding the 
parentheses. 

6. The printed answers are not complete answers in the ordinary 
sense. The scoring system is based on key words. 

7. The candidate must use all the key words in one of the answers 
listed as correct. He may say more, of course, but should not be 
permitted to ramble. 

8. The candidate is not required to give the key words in the order 
in which they are printed. 

9. Score the answer to each question before giving the next question. 

10. If the candidate gives a satisfactory answer which includes 
the correct answer for subsequent questions, the Examiner will 
silently score the candidate "4" on those subsequent questions with- 
out asking them. 

For example, 

1. Q. What is that? 
A. Arrester. 

2. Q. What kind of arrester is that? 
A. Aluminum. 

3. Q. What is that arrester used for? 
A. Protection against lightning. 

If the candidate should answer in response to the first question: 
"Aluminum arrester to protect against lightning," then the Examiner 
should score the candidate "4" on all three questions without stating 
the last two questions. 

RATING 

I. The candidate will be rated according to the instructions given 
in each test. 

Criticism of the Picture Test Method 

Although the picture tests were not used as extensively as 
were the oral tests, from the experience derived from the pro- 
cess of standardization and from application in the camps it is 
possible to weigh, in a tentative manner, the relative advan- 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 195 

tages and disadvantages of this type of examination. Several 
of these advantages have been discussed incidentally in connec- 
tion with the reasons for the adoption of this method of exami- 
nation. It will, however, be convenient to collect here some 
of the more valuable features of this method. 

Advantages of the Picture Tests 

1. The picture test approximates more closely to the actual 
situation in the trade. 

2. The tradesman has more confidence in the method; it 
appears to him to be much more practical than the purely oral 
method. 

3. The picture test admits of more intricate questions. 

4. It is less subject to coaching. 

5. The picture will often call forth a piece of information 
which the tradesman might be unable to recollect without the 
association value of the picture. 

It may be interesting to state that repeatedly, when oral 
tests were given, the men themselves suggested that the method 
of examination would have been improved if pictures had been 
used. In the opinion of the author, this is the main advantage 
derived. Generally speaking, the picture tests did not differen- 
tiate between different trade levels with any greater degree of 
accuracy than did the ora? questions. They did, however, 
establish an understanding between the examiner and the 
tradesman which was sometimes notxeably lacking in the 
case of the oral tests. Though in by far the majority of cases 
the candidates were certain that the oral tests were fair, in a 
few cases the examiner could not help noticing that the man 
felt that he had been given a very theoretical examination. 
Even though, as a matter of fact, this idea was erroneous, in 
view of the rigorous standardization to which the oral tests were 



196 TRADE TESTS 

subjected, it is a human factor which must not be overlooked. 
Considering the importance of human relationships in industry 
it would seem that even a slightly inferior type of examination 
which appeals to the workman as essentially practical is of 
greater value than a more accurate measuring device which 
arouses suspicion as to its fairness or practicaHty. 

Disadvantages of Picture Test 

1. The construction of the test is more laborious in so far as 
pictures, diagrams or photographs have to be procured. 

2. The cost of production is greater. 

3. It is more awkward to give, and takes a longer time than 
an equal number of oral questions. 

4. There is a greater danger of unfamiliarity, due to the fact 
that the machine or tool or process pictured is not identical 
with that used by the tradesman. 

5. The pictures are themselves liable to get out of date; that 
is, ten years' progress in a trade would throw out a greater pro- 
portion of the picture questions than of oral questions. 

6. Many men of less intelligence are not accustomed to read- 
ing diagrams or interpreting pictures. As we have already 
stated, a combination of words and pictures might appear 
to be an easier form of examinat^!on than that furnished 
by words alone. That is, the pictures might clarify the 
meaning of the words. This assumption, however, was 
not verified by practice, except in the case of the expert. 
Often the picture makes it more difEcult for the man to 
focus his attention on the question which is being asked. 
for he tends to study the whole picture and his thoughts 
are diffused over a wide area. With the less skilled and 
less educated, particularly where there is a shght language 
difhculty, the pictures seem in one way or another to com- 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 197 

plicate the mental process. It was found that the lower 
type of man, in the attempt to direct his attention simul- 
taneously to the words of the question and to the picture, 
became confused. For such men there is no doubt that 
the oral method of examination is superior. 

7. Where several questions depend on a single picture, the 
failure to recognize this picture unfairly penalizes the can- 
didate. 

It would appear that the advantages of both the oral method 
and the picture method could be combined. The use of pictures 
in a few questions would not only establish confidence in the 
form of examination, but it would also enable certain very 
valuable questions to be asked which could not be introduced 
in the oral examination. 

These methods of examination are so recent that much 
further experimentation wiU be necessary before final judgments 
can be given. Either method supplies a device which is infinitely 
superior to any that has been previously employed to meet the 
conditions, but a correct balance can only be the outcome of 
much further trial in the every day routine of varied industrial 
plants. 

Representative Picture Tests 

The following picture tests, taken from diverse trades, illus- 
trate the method of application of the principles described: 

Carpenter. General. 

Electrician. General and Switchboard Tender (A.C.). 

Electrician. Lead Storage Battery. 

Machinist. Lathe Operator. 

Blacksmith. Horseshoer. 

Boilermaker. Locomotive. 

Leather Worker. Cobbler. 

Welder. Gas Welder. 



198 



TRADE TESTS 



TRADE TEST 
CARPENTER. — General 

PICTURE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

PICTURE 1 



1. Q. What do you call that? 

A. Jack ffore) (joiner) plane. 




PICTURE 2 

2. Q. What do you call that? 
A, Spoke shave. 

PICTURE 3 



3. Q. What do you call that? 

A. Saw clamp fvise). 



PICTURE 4 

4. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Draw knife. 

PICTURE 5 

5. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Ripping (pr>ing) chisel. 



f 




1 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 199 
PICTURE 6 

^"^ — 



6. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Center bit. 






PICTURE 7 



7. Q. What do you call that? ^^^.^^ 

A. Bevel gauge ("fence"), ^fe^^ 







PICTURE 8 



8. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Scraper. 




PICTURE 9 



9. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Saw set. 






PICTURE 10 
10. Q. What kind of a chisel is that? 
A. Mortise (frame). 

PICTURE 11 



11. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Mitre. 



B^^^^^M^^ 




PICTURE 12 



12. Q. What kind of a hatchet is that? 
A. Lathe (shingle). 



^.^**J 



200 



TRADE TESTS 
PICTURE 13 



13. Q. What kind of a joint is that? 

A. Halved (cross lap) . 

PICTURE 14 

14. Q. What kind of nailing do you call that? 
A. Toe. 

PICTURE 15 

15. Q. What does " W.S." 

mean? 
A. Wall stringer. 

16. Q. What part of the step is 

that at C? 
A. Rise. ->> 

17. Q. What do you call the part "k 

of the step at B? 
A. Tread (run). 

18. Q. What do you call D? 
A. Nosing. 

PICTURE 16 

19. Q. What kind of jointing is that? 

A. Slip tongued (feather and grooved, 
matched). 

PICTURE 17 



20. Q. 


What do you call the rafters at 




" O-A, O-B and 0-C "? 


A. 


Valley. 


21. Q. 


What do you call the rafters at 




''O-D, O-F, and 0-E »'? 


A. 


Ridge. 




1 




c_>S:^- 





THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 201 



PICTURE 18 



22. Q. Where is the siU? 
A. I. 

23. Q. Where are the studs? 
A. A. 

24. Q. Where is the sheathing? 
A. C. 

25. Q. Where is the water table? 
A. H. 




IDENTIFICATION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD 

Say to the candidate: "Here are a number of different kinds of 
wood. Tell me the name of each kind. Begin with number i and 
go right through." 



26. 


(i) 


A. 


White Pine. 


27. 


(2) 


A. 


Hackmatack (Larch) (Tamarack) 


28. 


(3) 


A. 


Cypress. 


29. 


(4) 


A. 


Basswood. 


30- 


(5) 


A. 


Maple. 


31- 


(6) 


A. 


Cherry. 


32. 


(7) 


A. 


Elm (Butternut). 


33- 


(8) 


A. 


Ash. 


34. 


(9) 


A. 


Chestnut. 


35- 


(10) 


A. 


Oak. 


36. 


(11) 


A. 


Red Oak. 


37. 


(12) 


A. 


Gum (Hazel) wood. 


38. 


(13) 


A. 


Walnut. 


39. 


(14) 


A. 


IVIahogany (Ba}^^ood). 


40 


(15) 


A. 


Teak (Pasanda). 



202 TRADE TESTS 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RATER 

Score Rating 

io8 to i6o both inclusive E 

60 to 107 both inclusive J 

24 to 59 both inclusive A 

o to 23 both inclusive N 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 203 



TRADE TEST 

ELECTRICIAN. — Generator and Switchboard 

Tender 

(A. c.) 




COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

PICTURE 1 

1. Q. What is that machine used for? 

A. (i) To convert Direct Current (D.C.) into Alternating 
Current (A.C.). 
(2) A.C. to D.C. (One sufficient) 

2. Q. How do you know that the A.C. end is at B? 
A. (i) Slip rings. 

(2) Connecting rings. (One sufficient) 

3. Q. How many phases has that machine? 
A. Three. 



204 



TRADE TESTS 




PICtURE 2 
4. Q. What does that picture represent? 
A. (i) Alternator. 

(2) Generator. (One sufficient) 

6. Q. What do you call the machine at ** B "? 
A. Exciter. 

6. Q. What is the exciter used for? 
A. (i) To supply field current. 

(2) Excite the field. (One sufficient) 

7. Q. Where is the exciter current put into the field? 
A. (i) At "A." 

(2) Slip rings. (One sufficient) 




PICTURE 3 
8. Q. What do you call that? 
A. (i) Disconnecting switch. 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 205 



9. 



10. 



12. 



13. 



14. 



Q. 
A. 

Q. 
A. 



(2) Knife switch. 

(3) High tension switch. (One sufficient, 
What kind of insulator is that? 

Petticoat. 

What is the purpose of the irregular surface of an insulator? 

(i) To increase the creepage distance. 

(2) Long f)ath. 

(3) To increase surface. 



(4) Moisture. 



(One sufficient) 



PICTURE 4 



11. Q. That diagram 
shows two alter- 
nators to be 
synchronized. 
How would you 
tell when to close 
themain switch? 
A. When lamps are dark. 




ACOenerator 



^COener^for 



PICTURE 5 




-i±;— 



D 



Q. What does that picture represent? 

A. fi) Oil switch. 

ii) Circuit breaker. 

Q. What is shown at **A'»? 

A. Insulator. 

Q. What is the rod at " C " made of? 

A. Wood. 



(One sufficient) 



206 



TRADE TESTS 
PICTURE 6 



15. Q. What do you caU that? 
A. Regulator. 

16. Q. What is shown at ** A " in that picture? 
A. Motor. 

PICTURE 7 

17. Q. What is that? 
A. Circuit breaker. 





PICTURE 8 



18. Q. What do you call that? 
A. (i) Starting; box. 

(2) Rheostat. (One sufficient) 




PICTURE 9 
19. Q. What kind of transformer is that? 
A. Current transformer. 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 207 
PICTURE 10 



20. Q. What kind of transformer is that? 
A. (i) Potential transformer. 
(2) Voltage transformer. 

(One sufficient) 



PICTURE 11 




21. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Shunt. 




PICTURE 1? 



22. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Choke coil. 




PICTURE 13 



23. Q. What is the part at "A" 
used for? 
A. Tighten belt. 




208 



TRADE TESTS 
PICTURE 14 



24. Q. What kind of wattmeter is that? 

A. (i) Recording. 

(2) Integrating. (One sufficient) 




PICTURE 15 



25. Q. What is that? 
A. Field coil. 



26. Q. 



A. 



What do you call that 
instrument? 

(i) S}Tichroscope. 
(2) S>Tichronism indi- 
cator. (One sufficient) 




PICTURE 16 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 209 
PICTURE 17 

That is a wiring diagram for a three-phase generator panel. Study 
the connections and identify the following parts: 



27. 


Q. 


What is shown at 




A. 


Field switch. 


28. 


Q. 


What is shown at 




A. 


Field rheostat. 


29. 


Q. 


What is shown at 




A. 


Shunt. 


30. 


Q. 


What is shown at 




A. 


Voltmeter. 


31. 


Q. 


What is shown at 




A. 


Ammeter. 


32. 


Q. 


What is shown at 




A. 


Field ammeter. 


33. 


Q. 


What is shown at 
" G "? 




A. 


Current transfor- 
mer. 


34. 


Q. 


What is shown at 




A. 


Oil switch. 



c—*4 



n.C. Bases 




@ 

^6 



Bc/ses 



S./f. 



7.B. 




■K 



^10 



TRADE TESTS 
PICTURE 18 




**iti 1 1 If I 

Ul if II I SI 



35. Q. What kind of regulator is 
that? 
A. Tirrill. 



PICTURE 19 



36. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Arrester. 

37. Q. What kind of an arrester 

is that? 
A. (i) -Aluminum. 

(One sufficient) 
(2) Electrolytic. 

38. Q. What is it used for? 

A. (i) Lightning protection. 
(2) High tension short 
circuits. 

(One sufficient) 




THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 211 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

o to i6 inclusive Novice 

20 to 60 inclusive Apprentice 

64 to 124 inclusive Journeyman 

128 to 152 inclusive Expert 



212 



TRADE TESTS 



TRADE TEST 
ELECTRICIAN. — Lead Storage Battery 

PICTURE 

COMMITTEE OX CLASSIFICATION OF PERSOXXEL 

IX THE ar:^iy 

Trade Test Dh-ision 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjiitayit General 

A 3 



Mam Line (Direct Curreni) 
24 CelJ Baffery 




PICTURE 1 

1. Q. What is being done in that picture? 
A. Charging. 

2. Q. What is at "A"? 

A. Voltmeter. (X'ote: ''Voltmeter or ammeter" is wrong.) 

3. Q. What is at '<B"? 

A. .Ammeter. (Note: ''Voltmeter or ammeter" is v,Tong.) 

4. Q. What is at " C "? 

A. (i) Rheostat. 

(2) Resistance. 

(One sufficient) 

(X'ote: -'Starting box'' or "Controller" is ^Tong.) 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 213 



PICTURE 2 

5. Q. What is that apparatus used for? 
A. Burning. 

6. Q. What is supplied at " A "? 

A. (i) Gas. 

(2) Hydrogen. 



"i^^^^ 




7. Q. What is in the tank at ** B "? 

A. (i) Oxygen. 
(2) Air. 

8. Q. What is at '' D "? 

A. (i) Pressure gauge. 

(2) Pressure meter. 

(3) Pressure indicator. 



(One sufficient) 



(One sufficient) 



(Note: ''Pressure regulator" is wrong.) 



214 



TRADE TESTS 



PICTURE 3 



9. Q. How many volts would 
you get from that arrange- 
ment if each cell gives two 
volts? 
A. Two. 




PICTURE 4 



10. Q. How many volts would you 
get from that arrangement 
if each cell gives two volts? 
A. Eight. 




PICTURE 5 



11. Q. How many volts would 
you get from that arrange- 
ment if each cell gives two 
volts? 
A. Four. 




THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 215 
PICTURE 6 



12. Q. How many volts would 
you get from that arrange- 
ment if each cell gives two 
volts? 
A. Four. 



PICTURE 7 




13. Q. What is that? 
A. Handle. 




PICTURE 8 



14. Q. What make of battery are those plates 
for? 
A. Edison. 




216 



15. Q. What is that? 

A. Vent. 



TRADE TESTS 
PICTURE 9 

PICTURE 10 




16. Q. What do you call those cross pieces at the bottom of the jar? 

A. (i) Bridge. 
(2) Ribs. 

(One sufficient) 

17. Q. What is the purpose of those cross 

pieces at the bottom of the jar? 
A. (i) Collect sediment. 

(2) Prevent short circuit (Short). 

(One sufficient) 

PICTURE 11 

18. Q. What kind of wrench is 

that? 

A. (i) Ratchet. 
(2) Socket. 

(One sufficient) 



19. Q. What car has that assembly 
batteries? 
A. Maxwell. 





s^ 



PICTURE 13 



20. Q. What car has that assembly of 
batteries? 
A. Packard. 




THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 
PICTURE 14 



217 



21. Q. What is that? 
A. Separator. 

22. Q. What is that separator made of? 
A. Wood. 



PICTURE 15 




23. Q. Why is that torch 
applied at the top of 
the jar? 

A. (i) To soften com- 
pound. 

(2) To remove the 
plates. 

(One sufficient) 



PICTURE 16 

24. Q. What caused the damage to that plate? 
A. (i) High temperature. 

(2) Short circuit. 

(3) Overload. 

(4) Heavy charge or discharge. 

(5) Sulpha tion. 

(6) Separator broken. 

(7) Frozen battery. 

(8) Overcharging. 

(9) Undercharging. 
(10) Vibration. (One sufficient) 

(Note: "Age" is insufficient.) 

25. Q. What would you do with a plate Uke that? 
A. Discard it 



irri 





218 



TRADE TESTS 




PICTURE 17 

26. Q. What is shown at '* A "? 
A. Fuse. 

27. Q. What are the lamps at '* B '» used for? 

A. (i) Resistance. 

(2) Rheostat. 

(3) Regulate current. (One sufficient) 

28. Q. What kind of current is suppUed at '' C "? 
A. Direct current (DC). 



PICTURE 18 

29. Q. What is that? 
A. Rectifier. 

30. Q. What kind of rectifier does that 

picture show? 
A. (i) Mercury. 

(2) Cooper-Hewitt. (One sufficient) 

31. Q. What is a rectifier used for? 

A. To change alternating current (AC) 
to direct current (DC) or vice versa. 




THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 219 



RATING THE CANDIDATE 



o to 32 inclusive — Novice. 
36 to 64 inclusive — Apprentice. 
68 to 96 inclusive — Journeyman. 
100 to 124 inclusive — Expert. 



TRADE TESTS 



TRADE TEST 
MACHINIST. — Lathe Operator 

PICTURE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICA ION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reprodiiced by permission of the Adjutant General 






B 

PICTURE 1 

Q. What do you call those chucks? 
A. (a) 4-jaw chuck (Independent). 

(b) 3-jaw chuck (Universal). 

(c) Drill chuck. 



(All three required) 




PICTURE 2 
2. Q. What do you call that mechanism? 
A. Taper attachment. 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 221 
PICTURE 3 

• ^ - • I ■ 



3. Q. What is the pur- 
pose of those two 
gears A and B? 
A. Reverse. 



^' 










1 
J 






.. * 




~. "* * .^ i 


J, 





PICTURE 4 

4. Q. What kmd of lathe is that? 
A. Turret. 

PICTURE 5 

5. Q. What kind of 

chuck is that? 

A. (i) Spring chuck. 

(2) "Draw-in" 
chuck. 

(3) Collet. 

(4) Split. 




(One sufficient) 



222 



TRADE TESTS 



PICTURE 6 



6. Q. What is being done in 

that picture? 
A. Locating center. 

7. Q. What do you call the 

device at B? 
A. V-block. 




PICTURE 7 



8. Q. Why do you have 
the two gears at A 
and A? 

A. (i) Reverse feed. 
(2) Right and left 
hand thread. 

(One sulficient) 



P^^R^^^ 






PICTURE 8 

9. Q. What do you call the tool between the centers? 
A. Tap. 
10. Q. What is the attachment on that lathe used for? 

A. (i) '' Backing off." 

(2) Relieving. 

(3) Clearance. (One sufficient) 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 223 

SCALE. 
3 3 4 5 6 7 



5 10 15 20 25 



PICTURE 9 

11. Q. What is the reading on that vernier? 

A. (i) 1.205 to 1.207. 
(2) 205 to 270. 



(One sufficient) 



4 



\ 



r 



-// 



.7SO 



1-. 



PICTURE 10 

12. Q. What should be the dimension at A? 
A. 3". 

13. Q. Why do they have two dimensions at B? 
A. (i) Maximum and minimum. 

(Note: Accept any equivalent answer.) 

(2) Tolerance. 

(3) Allowance of 0.004". 

(4) For limit gages. 



(One sufficient) 



224 



TRADE TESTS 




PICTURE 11 

14. Q. For what kind of work do you use the dial at A? 

A. Cutting threads. 




PICTURE 12 

15. Q. How do you get the lace tight on the face plate? 

A. Loosen face plate before lacing. 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD ^2^25 




16. Q. Name the tools in that picture. 
A. (a) Diamond point. 

(b) Cutting-off (Parting). 

(c) Boring Tool. 

(d) Side Tool (Facing). 

(e) Centering Tool. 



PICTURE 14 

17. Q. What is the purpose 
of the part F? 

A. Counterbalance 



(x\Il required) 



(Balance) . 





PICTURE 15 

18. Q. What is the use of the recess C? 

A. (i) Prevent breaking (jam- 
ming) tool. 



(2) Clearance. 



(One sufficient) 



226 



TRADE TESTS 




E 



i»^i^.v _ .. ,. .. 

iO?0?05oBO = OHo2o|o5o2 0|oioi of of 05 

M 6=* 6; 6; 6s 6i 61 6= 6? 61 5? os o 








PICTURE 16 

19. Q. Name the gages in that picture, 
A. (a) Center Gage. 

(b) Depth Gage. 

(c) DriU Gage (Wire Gage). 

(d) Feeler (Thickness) Gage. 

(e) Radius (Curve) Gage. 

(f) Snap Gage. 

(g) Surface Gage, 
(h) Thread Gage. 
(i) Wire Gage. 



(All nine required) 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 227 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

o to i6 inclusive Novice 

20 to 40 inclusive Apprentice 

44 to 60 inclusive : Journeyman 

64 to 76 inclusive ' Expert 



22S 



TRADE TESTS 



TRADE TEST 
BLACKSMITH. — Horseshoer 

PICTURE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 



PICTURE 1 



1. Q. What is the dif- 
ference between 
those shoes? 

A. "A" is fullered 
(creased) . 

"B" is hand made 
(stamped) . 

(Both required) 




PICTURE 2 



2. Q. Why do you put on that kind of 
shoe? 
A. To prevent interfering. 




THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 
PICTURE 3 



3. Q. What kind of a shoe is that? 
A. Toe weight. 



PICTURE 4 



4. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Pad. 

5. Q. Why are they used? 
A. Sore feet. 





PICTURE 5 



6. Q. When do you use a shoe Uke that? 
A. Mule. 



PICTURE 6 



7. Q. What do you call that? 

A. (i) Racing plate. 
(2) Trotting. 

(One sufficient) 





230 



TRADE TESTS 
PICTURE 7 



8. Q. What is the difference |# 
between those shoes? U 
A. "A" is front shoe. \ 

"B" is hind shoe. 

(Both required) 




PICTURE 8 

9. Q. That is a picture of a hoof plate. 
What is it made of? 
A. (i) Canvas. 

(2) Leather. 

(3) Rubber. 

(One sufficient) 



PICTURE 9 



10. Q. What do you call that? 

A. Trotting plate. 



PICTURE 10 

11. Q. When do you use that kind of 
shoe? 
A. Winter. 






THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 231 



PICTURE 11 



12. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Pritchel. 



PICTURE 12 



13. Q. What do you call that 
tool? 

A. (i) Clinch tongs. 
(2) Clinch puller 

(One sufficient) 




PICTURE 13 



14. Q. What kind of hammer 
is that? 

A. (i) Fitting hammer. 
(2) Sharpening ham- 
mer. 

(One sufficient) 




PICTURE 14 



15. Q. What kind of hammer 

is that? f^ (^'^ 

A. Driving. 




3 



PICTURE 15 



16. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Tongs. 



PICTURE 16 



17. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Buffer. 

18. Q. What is that used for? 
A. Cut clinches. 




232 



TRADE TESTS 
PICTURE 17 



19. Q. What do you call those tools? 
A. Hardies. 

20. Q. What is the difference between 

them? 

A. (i) A is straight hardie. 
(2) B is round hardie. 

(Both required) 




PICTURE 18 

21. Q. What do you call those tools? 
A. Chisels. 

22. Q. What is the difference between those 

tools? 

A. (i) A is cold chisel. 
(2) B is hot chisel. 

(Both required) 




PICTURE 19 



23. Q. How should that foot be shod? 

A. (i) Concave shoe. 

(2) Wide shoe. 

(3) Bar shoe. 

(One sufficient) 




THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 233 
PICTURE 20 



24. Q. What part of the foot is at 1? 
A. Frog. 

25. Q. What part of the foot is at 3? 
A. Bar. 

26. Q. What part is at 4? 
A. Wall. 



PICTURE 21 




27. Q. What is the condition of that foot? 
A. Contracted foot. 



PICTURE 22 



28. Q. What do you call that device inside 
the hoof? 
A. (i) Hoof expander. 
(2) Spring. 

(One sufi&cient) 





234 



TRADE TESTS 



PICTURE 23 

29. Q. What is the condition of that foot 

at *'A"? 
A. Quarter crack. 

30. Q. What has been done at " A "? 
A. Clamped. 

31. Q. What has been done at '* B "? 
A. Nailed. 




PICTURE 24 

32. Q. How should those feet be shod? 

A. (i) Outside of foot weighted. 
(2) Side weight. 

(One sufi&cient) 




PICTURE 25 

33. Q. What is the condition of that 

foot? 
A. (i) Foundered. 

(2) Laminated. 

(One sufficient) 

34. Q. How should that foot be shod? ^r 

A. (i) Concave shoe. €l... 

(2) Bar shoe. 

(3) Remove pressure on sole. 




(One sufficient) 



PICTURE 26 

35. Q. What is the condition of that 
foot? 

A. (i) Cracked walls. 
(2) Seedy. 

(One sufficient) ^'*-»— 




THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 235 
PICTURE 27 



36. Q. What is that? 

A. (i) Toolbox. 
(2) Shoeing box. 

(One sufficient) 




PICTURE 28 



37. Q. What do you call that? 
A. Stocks. 

38. Q. When are they used? 
A. Unruly horses. 




PICTURE 29 



39. Q. What is that? 
A. Toe calk. 




RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score * Rating 

o to 52 inclusive Novice 

56 to 76 inclusive Apprentice 

80 to 108 inclusive Journeyman 

112 to 156 inclusive . : Expert 



236 



TRADE TESTS 



TRADE TEST 
BOILERMAKER. — Locomotive 

PICTURE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 




PICTURE 1 

Q. What are the large holes in that sheet for? 
A. Superheater tubes (flues) (units). 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 237 

2. Q. What do you call the space between the holes? 
A. (i) Bridges. 

(2) Pitch. 

(3) Ligaments. (One sufladent) 

3. Q. How do you repair a crack in that sheet? 
A. (i) Cut (chip) (V) out and weld. 

(2) Weld. 

(3) Patch (plug). (One sufficient) 

4. Q. What part of that is the combustion chamber? 
A. (i) B (A). 

(2) From flue sheet back. 

(3) Between flue sheet and firebox. (One sufficient) 




PICTURE 2 

5. Q. What is that man doing? 
A. Caulking. 

6. Q. What is that operation for? 

A. (i) Make it steam tight (stop leak). 

(2) Tighten sheet. (One sufficient) 

7. Q. What must you usually do to the edge of a sheet before 

caulking it? 
A. (i) Chip. 

(2) Bevel. (One sufficient) 



238 



TRADE TESTS 



8. Q. 



A. 



Q. 

A. 



What may happen if the holding rivets are too far from 
the edge of the sheet? 

(i) Cause leakage. 

(2) Caulking edge (lap) lift (sheet turn up). 

(3) Drive sheet off ring. 

(4) Undermine sheet (sheet loosen). (One sufficient) 
What part of the boiler is that man working on? 

(i) Mud ring. 

(2) Right front corner. (One sufficient) 




PICTURE 3 

10. Q. What do you call that tool? 
A. (i) Expander. 

(2) Prosser. (One sufficient; 

11. Q. At what point on fig. 5 would that tool be applied? 

A. (i) G(K). 

(2) Firebox end. 

(3) Rear (back) end (of flue). (One sufficient) 

12. Q. What risk is there in using that tool on running repairs? 

A. (i) Break (crack) (fracture) tubes, 

(2) Burst flues. (One sufficient) 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 239 




PICTURE 4 



13. Q. What are those men tapping? 
A. Staybolts. 

14. Q. What part of the boiler does that show? 
A. Side sheet. 



240 TRADE TESTS 







A 


^^^ 






-!iss=5-=r=s5.-=r:— JSHist&rsir&TS^ 


6--% 




^B 


^^1 


^ 


w^^K^' 


m^^ 


i^m 




^H 


^H 


w 




M^B 






^^^^^^ 


^^^^s 


^SiiMil 




^^^^B^a^^B:- 


'-ss't^^^I 




^^^ffil^Sn^Q^ 


^l'^l^'''**llll>l jnjr 


^^V >dHB 




WU^^^^M^^^^^^^Bm-ns 


sS-S^^^B 






ii 


^ 




^^^F 'J 



PICTURE 5 

15. Q. What special equipment is shown there? 
A. Superheater. 

16. Q. What change must be made in the boiler to put in that 

special equipment? 

A. (i) New flue sheets (heads). 

(2) Change front and back flue sheets, 
(round head and V head) 

(One sufficient) 

17. Q. Why are those tubes smaller at G? 

A. (i) Not room enough (large hole takes too much of sheet). 

(2) Give larger bridge space (not to weaken sheet). 

(3) Large size not necessary (no superheater units at G). 

(4) Copper ferrule. 

(One sufficient) 

18. Q. What are the small pipes inside the large ones for? 

A. (i) Superheat steam. 
(2) Dry steam. 

(One sufficient) 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 241 




19. 



21. 



Q. 
A. 

Q. 

A. 

Q. 
A. 



22. Q. 



23. 


Q. 




A. 


24. 


Q. 




A. 


25. 


Q. 




A. 



PICTURE 6 

What is the purpose of tube E? 

Arch (bridge). 

What is being done in that picture? 

Cleaning. 

What is the part at D which rests on the tubes? 

(i) Brick arch. 

(2) Arch brick. 

(3) Brick. (One sufficient) 
How can you tell from that picture that the locomotive has a 

superheater? 

(i) Large (superheater) flues (tubes). 

(2) Brick arch. 

(3) c. 

(4) Spacing of tubes. (One sufficient) 
What tool would be used for applying tube E to a firebox? 
(i) Roller. 

(2) Expander. 

(3) Beading. (One sufficient) 
What do you call the part at G? 

Throat sheet. 

What do you call the part at F? 

(i) Back head. 

(2) Door. (One sufficient) 



242 TRADE TESTS 

26. Q. What causes tubes to blister? 
A. Dirt (mud) (sediment) (scale). 

27. Q. When tubes become blistered, what must be done? 
A. Replace (renew) (remove). 

(ORAL) 

28. Q. In testing a boiler, why is it better to use water than steam? 
A. (i) Find leaks better. 

(2) Safer. 

(Both required) 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

1. Score each answer 4 or o. Give no partial credits. 

2. Rate the candidate according to the following table: 

Score Rating 

o to 36 inclusive N 

40 to 68 inclusive A 

72 to 96 inclusive J 

100 to 1 1 2 inclusive E 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 243 



TRADE TEST 
LEATHER WORKER. — Cobbler 

PICTURE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 




PICTURE 1 

1. Q. What is this knife used for? 

A. (i) Rounding soje (w.elt). 
(2) Trimming sole (welt). 
(One sufficient) 



c; 




PICTURE 2 

2. Q. What is this knife used for? 
A. (i) Skiving. 
(2) Uppers. 

(One sufficient) 




PICTURE 3 

3. Q. What is this knife used for? 

A. (i) Soles. 
(2) Skiving. 

(One sufficient) 



244 



TRADE TESTS 





PICTURE 4 



Q. What is the name of this? 

A. Last hook. 

Q. What is it used for? 

A. Pulling (taking) out lasts. 



PICTURE 5 



6. Q. What kind of an awl is 
this? 
A. (i) Sewing. Score 4 
(2) Stitching. Score o 






PICTURE 6 


Q. 


What is this? 


A. 


(i) Burnisher. 




(2) Heel iron. 




(3) Burnishing iron. 




(One sufficient) 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 245 




9. 



10. 



Q. 


What is this used for? 




A. 


(i) Burnishing heels. 
(2) Finishing heels. 






(3) First (roughing) work. 


(One sufficient) 




PICTURE 8 


■ 


Q. 


What is this? 




A. 


(i) Cutter. 


^^ gliiiiiiini 




(2) Biter. 


"^ ^ 




(3) Nail cutter. fi^M 






(4) Nail nippers. l^R ■ 


"5 




(One sufficient) \^P^««^ 




Q. 


What is it used for? 




A. 


(i) Cutting nails. 


-^ ::::^ 




(2) Breaking nails. 


(One sufficient) 




PICTURE 9 





11. 



12. 



13, 



Q. What do you use this for? 

A. (i) Closing uppers. 
(2) Hand stitching. 





(3) Sewing soles. 


(One sufficient) 




PICTURE 10 




Q. 


What is this? 




A. 


Peg (pegging) awl. ^^ 


^■■■^^^ 


Q. 


What is it used for? ---*'«'^^M 


^^^■^^^^^^H 


A. 


(i) Making holes for pegs. 
(2) Wood pegs. 


^^^^ 




(3) Wood nails (tacks). 


(One sufficient) 



246 



TRADE TEST 




PICTURE 11 



14. Q. What do you use this for? 
A. (i) Clamping heels. 

(2) Holding heels. 

(3) Wood heels. 



(One sufficient) 




PICTURE 12 



15. Q. What is this used for? 
A. (i) Finishing heel seats). 
(2) ^Marking heel seats). 



(One sufficient) 




\ 




PICTURE 13 



16. Q. What is the name of this? 
A. Ki) Edge shave. 
(21 Edge trimmer. 
(3) Shave. 



Pne sutticient) 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 247 



19. 



20. 



21. 




PICTURE 14 

17. Q. This is a side of leather. 

(a) From what part do you get heel stock? 

(b) From what part do you get light soles? 

(c) From what part do you get insoles? 

(d) From what part do you get prime soles? 

A. (a) A. and D. (b) B. (c) A. and D. (d) C. 



PICTURE 15 

18. Q. This picture 
shows shoe cut 
across. 

What part of the 
shoe do you call 
part at " A "? 
Upper (vamp). 



(Any 3) 



A. 
Q. 



What is the name 
of the part of the 
shoe at " B "? 

A. Lining. 

Q. What do you call 

A. Insole. 

Q. What is "D" 

called? 
A. Welt. 




-248 TRADE TESTS 

22. Q. What is " G " called? 
A. Filling. 

23. Q. What parts does stitch " H " fasten together? 
A. Outsole to the welt. 



RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

o to 20 both inclusive Xo\'ice 

24 to 40 both inclusive Apprentice 

44 to 72 both inclusive Journeyman 

76 and above Expert 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 249 



TRADE TEST 
WELDER. — Gas Welder 

PICTURE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 




PICTURE 1 

1. Q. What kind of flame is shown at A? 
A. (i) Carbonizing. 

(2) Excessive acetylene. 

(3) Crystallizing. 



(One sufficient) 



250 



TRADE TESTS 



2. Q. What kind of flame is shown at B? 

A. (i) Neutral. 
(2) Welding. 

3. Q. What kind of flame is shown at C? 

A. Oxidizing (oxygen). 



(One sufficient) 



ft 




-^^ 


■ # 


L 
r 


m^ 


r§ 




Sll^''"' 


fit 


■ ^mf 




if ^1 


^ 


nrp 



PICTURE 2 

4. Q. Why is flux used in welding cast iron? 
A. (i) Clean. 

(2) Reduce oxide (remove scale). 



(One sufficient) 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 251 




PICTURE 3 

5. Q. Why is the operation in that picture necessary? 

A. (i) Expansion and contraction. 

(2) Crack. (One sufficient) 




PICTURE 4 



6. Q. What kind of pre-heating is being used there? 
A. Charcoal. 



252 



TRADE TESTS 




PICTURE 5 

7. Q. What would happen if that plate were not held open during 
welding? 

' A. (i) Over-lapping (lap). 

(2) Warp (buckle). (One sufficient) 



PICTURE 6 

8. Q. What is the material 
around the blow pipe 
on that fender? 
A. (i). Asbestos. 
(2) Clay. 

(One sufficient) 




THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD '^^'^ 




PICTURE 7 

9. Q. What must be done in preparing that casting for welding? 

A. (a) Line up case (fit piece) . 

(b) Pre-heat. (Both required) 

10. Q. What would result from over-heating that casting? 

A. (i) Collapse. 

(2) Crumbles. (One sufficient) 

PICTURE 8 



11. Q. What is wrong 
with the welding 
atB? 

A. Burned (Oxi- 
dized) . 




2o4> 



TRADE TESTS 



PICTURE 9 



12. Q. 

A. 

13. Q. 



14. 



A. 
Q. 



A. 



What kind of weld is 

shown at A? 

Lap. 

What kind of weld 
is shown at B? 
Butt (end to end). 

With what thickness 
of metal may the 
weld at C be prop- 
erly used? 
Thin. (Light.) 




B 




^9 €S 




PICTURE 10 
15. Q. What metal should be used as a filler rod in weldmg parts 
A and B together; A being of cast iron and B of steel? 
A. Cast iron. 




PICTURE 11 

16. Q. What is the relation between the pressures of the gas and air 
in that blow pipe? 
A. Air (oxygen) greater. 



THE PICTURE TRADE TEST METHOD 255 




PICTURE 12 

17. Q. What are those blow pipes used for? 
A. Cutting. 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

Score Rating 

o to 1 2 inclusive N 

i6 to 28 inclusive A 

32 to 48 inclusive J 

52 to 68 inclusive E 



SECTION IV 
THE PERFORMANCE TRADE TEST 



CHAPTER VI 

THE GENERAL NATURE OF THE PERFORM- 
ANCE TEST METHOD 

The performance test is nothing more than a standardized, 
practical trade job, involving the use of blue prints, material 
and tools characteristic of the trade. The word performance is 
here used in an arbitrary but definite way. It means the carry- 
ing out, with the help of tools and equipment, of certain proc- 
esses of the trade. Strictly speaking, the oral and picture 
tests are just as much performances as an actual operation of 
the trade. In one case the performance is largely mental — the 
answer being oral; in the other case the performance is largely 
manual — the operation of the hand. It will, however, for the 
purpose of presentation, be convenient to limit the use of the 
word performance exclusively to actual work done under con- 
ditions essentially similar to those found in the trade. 

This method of testing is more closely related to that which 
has been used in industry than any of the methods previously 
described. The most common method, after the preliminary 
interview has taken place, is to refer the applicant to that de- 
partment in which he claims to have skill. On reaching this 
department the actual test for skill may be of two kinds. In 
one case the tradesman is actually put to work, using the tools 
of the trade in the actual job for which he is hired. His success 
or failure during the first two or three days determines whether 
he has the necessary skill. Another device, less frequently em- 
ployed, is to try the man out on a single representative opera- 

259 



260 TRADE TESTS 

tion of the trade. His success or failure in this one typical job 
is used as an index for estimating his total trade ability. The 
advantage of this second method is found in the fact that it 
gives a much more rapid estimate of general abihty, it enables 
a large number of bluffers to be rapidly eliminated, and it saves 
a good deal of waste material and damaged machinery. It is 
obviously very wasteful to put a man directly on a complex job, 
involving the use of expensive machines and much material, 
when a representative sample job, involving few tools and a 
small amount of material, can be used for the same purpose. 

When it became necessary to give some form of test to trades- 
men in the army, naturally this method of examination was 
thoroughly investigated to see in what way it could be applied 
to meet army requirements. In order to give such a perform- 
ance test two conditions are necessary: on the one hand the 
fools and the material, and on the other, an expert to judge the 
success with which the task has been performed. While these 
conditions are automatically secured in any industry, the repro- 
duction of these conditions for hundreds of trades in all the 
army camps obviously presented great difhculties. It will be re- 
membered that the chief requirements of the army situation were : 

1. The method must be such that it can be employed by an 
intelligent examiner who has no knowledge of the trade. 

2. The method must yield a rating which is objective. 

3. The method must be rapid and inexpensive. 

The question, therefore, facing those working on the feasibility 
of the performance test was to construct a general method 
whereby the tradesman could be tested in a straightforward, 
significant job which would require a sufficiently simple equip- 
ment to admit of its being employed without undue expense in 
many centers. In addition, it was absolutely necessary to 
work out a system which would enable an intelligent examiner 



PERFORMANCE TEST METHOD 261 

who had no specific trade skilly to rate the candidates' perform- 
ance in an objective manner. It can readily be seen that much 
greater difficulties had to be met than those encountered in 
the construction of the oral or picture test. 

The Advantages of the Performance Trade Test Methods 

The performance test method possesses so many advantages 
that it was well worth the time to investigate whether or not 
the obstacles could be surmounted. Many occupations exist 
in which it is almost wholly a question of degree of skill rather 
than range of information which distinguishes between different 
degrees of ability. The oral and picture tests measure trade 
skill indirectly by ascertaining the amount of information 
possessed by the tradesman. This method, however, breaks 
down completely when there is no high correlation between in- 
formation possessed and trade usefulness. In the case of stenog- 
raphy, the distinction between the poor typist, or even the 
learner in typewriting and the trained expert does not lie in the 
information possessed. Both know, as far as any oral test could 
reveal the fact, the position of the keys on the machine, the 
forms in which a letter or document should be written, etc. 
The distinction lies in the speed possessed by the expert as com- 
pared with that found in the slower typist. To differentiate 
between these two kinds of trade usefulness, the performance 
test, where the individual is actually given a piece of work to do, 
is the only possible resort. The same is true for such occupa- 
tions as truck driver, computer, clerical worker, and countless 
other occupations where information is a minimum and skill a 
maximum. This condition is found to a great extent in modern 
production methods of industry, where the process upon which 
the tradesman is engaged is exceedingly specialized, demanding 
a minimum of knowledge and a maximum of speed. 



262 TRADE TESTS 

The performance test is also indispensable in the examination 
of tradesmen who are unable to speak the English language. In 
certain important occupations in many parts of the country the 
skilled work is being done almost exclusively by men who are 
incapable of being tested by any method involving language to 
the degree called for by the oral and picture test. For example, 
in the city of Cleveland it was extremely difficult to standardize, 
under fair conditions, the oral test for cabinet makers; eighty 
per cent of the men who by trade standing were qualified to take 
the examination were prevented from doing so by language 
difficulty. Where this situation exists, the oral or picture test 
is much more a measurement of language facility than it is of 
trade information, and for these reasons, where the tradesmen 
are not English speaking, the findings are very misleading. 

A further advantage of the performance test is found in its 
obviously practical nature. It has already been emphasized 
that, other things being equal, any trade test is advantageous 
to the extent to which it reflects the shop conditions under which 
the ordinary workman follows the trade. The performance 
test possesses this great merit, and on this account establishes 
the confidence of the tradesman both in himself and in the 
method of examination. The considerations enumerated above 
made the use of the performance test method indispensable as 
part of the army selective machinery. 

The Difficulty of Procuring an Adequate Sample of Trade 
Ability by a Single Performance Test 

In connection with the oral method of examination the ques- 
tion of the random sampling of trade information and trade 
ability has been discussed. In general the complex which is 
referred to as trade abifity consists of many elements of infor- 
mation and a large number of skills. It has been proved that 



PERFORMANCE TEST METHOD 263 

fifteen to twenty questions, so chosen as to cover different proc- 
esses of the trade, can be used as an adequate sampHng of 
total information. It is obvious, however, that as the number 
of questions is reduced, the assumption that the test will give 
an indication of general trade information and ability, becomes 
increasingly dangerous. To attempt to measure the ability of 
a tradesman with a single question is, on the face of it, absurd. 
One question might be merely a matter of accidental informa- 
tion, which might conceivably be possessed by an individual 
who had no knowledge of any operation other than that con- 
cerning which the question was asked. It is around this question 
of the sampling of total trade ability that one of the great diffi- 
culties of the performance method centers. 

If, with twenty questions, involving twenty dift'erent phases 
of the total occupation, there is difficulty in ensuring a random 
sampling, how much greater is the difficulty in the case of a 
single operation! The reader may be tempted to ask, '^Why 
was it necessary to restrict the performance to a single job? 
Why could not the performance test cover a large number of 
different operations of the trade?" The reason that many 
operations could not be included in one composite test lay in 
the limitations as to time and expense fixed by the army situa- 
tion. To administer twenty oral or picture questions was a 
matter of ten to fifteen minutes. The simplest form of perform- 
ance test in the majority of trades would occupy from one to 
three hours. A sampling including a number of jobs would 
involve not only a great deal of equipment, but would also take 
two or three days to furnish a rating. When it is considered 
that the army required a test which could be given in all the 
camps in a minimum of time, the impracticability of a long 
performance test is patent. 

It may be mentioned in passing, however, that this was prac- 



264 TRADE TESTS 

tically the only method employed by the British Army. Owing 
to the geographical conditions and general methods of opera- 
tion of their army, it was possible to assemble all men claiming 
trade skill in one or two large centers. At these centers were 
found the tools and materials of a fully equipped shop, with 
trade experts in charge having full knowledge of army require- 
ments. The recruit in passing through one of these stations 
was assigned a number of jobs. While working on these various 
jobs, his dexterity and famiharity with the processes were ob- 
served. It was possible under these conditions to note the 
points of strength and weakness, and on this basis to make 
recommendation for further training or assignment to a suitable 
unit. This examination, which often extended over a period 
of from two days to a week, failed, in spite of its thoroughness, 
to yield an objective rating. The estimate made of the man's 
ability was of course dependent upon the subjective judgment of 
the particular examiner who observed his work. This method of 
examination will, however, be discussed more fully when we con- 
sider the applications of trade test methods to modern conditions. 
The restriction as to the time allowed for the examination 
made it necessary to select a single operation of the trade which 
could be completed in one or two hours at the most, and which 
would furnish a reliable index of general trade efficiency. Natu- 
rally, a single operation in the trade might well involve the use 
of a considerable number of tools and the handling of various 
kinds of material. For example, the total operation of making 
a small tin cup according to specifications, as a performance 
test for sheet metal workers, involves efficiency in a large num- 
ber of contributing minor operations. Other things being equal, 
that total operation is of the greatest value from the standpoint 
of testing which involves the largest number of significant 
minor processes. 



PERFORMANCE TEST METHOD 265 

Kinds of Performance Test 

For present purposes it is convenient to distinguish between 
the process and the product of a trade operation. While the 
two, in many cases, are very closely related, and in fact almost 
indistinguishable, in other cases the product may be considered 
apart from the process. As an illustration of process and product 
being almost inseparable, an operation such as that of truck 
driving may be cited. There is in this case no possibility of 
drawing the line at any time during the operation between the 
process and the product. The ''product" of turning a difficult 
corner is virtually the "process" of turning a corner. In the 
case of the construction of a tin cup, the processes involved in 
the choosing of materials, their cutting, shaping, soldering, etc., 
can all be observed, even though the final product, the com- 
pleted cup, is never seen. 

In the case of a process performance test the candidate would 
be watched during the progress of the examination. His famili- 
arity with tools and material, his skill and dexterity would be 
judged, even though the examination was not carried to a point 
where any tangible final product was evolved. The way in 
which the man went about his work, the tools that he chose, 
the remarks that he made, the order in which he tackled the 
various steps, all this could be observed without reference to the 
final product. 

In the case of the product test, there need be no observation 
of the man while he is performing the task. A carpenter might 
be given the necessary specifications, materials and tools for 
the construction of a joint. He would then be set to work at 
the bench, no further attention being given except to insure 
the absence of outside assistance. At the end of the trial, the 
quality of the product could be examined and rated according 
to previously formulated objective standards. 



266 TRADE TESTS 

The last illustration brings us to the consideration of the 
question of speed of operation. It may well be that a ven' 
simple product, which could be turned out even by an appren- 
tice would, when the time factor is considered, differentiate 
between men of var\Tiig trade experience. It would not be a 
matter of the quaHt}* of the product, but rather the faciht}- and 
dexterity possessed by the tradesman . as indicated by the time 
he took to perform the task. In illustration of this, the case 
of the distinction between the poor and good r\-pist may be cited. 
If both are given the same copy, it may well be that they would 
both hand in identicall}' the same final product, but whereas, 
in the nrst case, the time taken might be twenty-eight minutes, 
the corresponding time of the expert might well be thirteen 
minutes. The distinction between the two levels of abihty is. 
therefore, in this case, one that admits of being measured b}* 
a time factor. It is not to be inferred that the process by which 
the final copy is produced is the same in the two cases. An 
obsenation of the two tv-pists at work would show at once that 
the processes differ much more than ui mere speed. The opera- 
tions of a skilled indi^■idual in a particular process are different 
operations, not merely more rapid ones than those of the un- 
skilled worker. 

There are. then, several eleijaents from which the perform- 
ance test is evolved. These are, 

1. Obser\-ation of tradesman while engaged ia the processes 
of the trade. 

2. Examination of the resulting product. 

;. C:::5::!rr:.:ion of the time taken, either for a particular 
pricess. :r ::r t^ie producing of a particular object. 

In addition, combinations of the first and second factors. 
second and third factors, and of aU three may well be used in 
the construction of a performance test. Simple illustrations 
of each of these possibilities are given. 



PERFORMANCE TEST METHOD 267 

Process Test 

In a test for chauffeur truck driver, the candidate would be 
scored, according to the way in which he handled a truck, under 
standard conditions, when under the observation of the examiner. 

Product Test 

In a test for an expert toolmaker, a very difficult part might 
be given, the tradesman being required to produce to within a 
few thousands of an inch a part from raw stock, similar to the 
sample. Here time might not be considered, the fact that the 
workman was capable of reproducing the part furnishing suffi- 
cient evidence for rating. 

Process Time Test 

In a test for a machinist, the speed with which a machine 
could be changed from doing one job to another requiring a 
different set-up might be measured; the examiner would rate 
the workman according to the correctness of the various steps, 
as well as on the basis of his speed in passing through the several 
stages. 

Product Time Test 

In a test for typist, not only would the quality of the final 
copy be examined, but also the speed at which a definite amount 
was produced. 

Process- product-time Test 

This is a common type of informal test used in industry, 
where the workman, say an automobile radiator repair man, 
is given a radiator, damaged in a known way, to repair. His 
performance is Judged partly by the way in which he handles 
and chooses the implements of his trade, partly by the quahty 



268 TRADE TESTS 

of the final job turned out, and partly on the basis of the time 
taken for the carrying out of the operations. 

As to which one of these methods shall be employed, the 
decision depends on the conditions for which the test is designed. 
To meet army requirements of speed and objective scoring by 
non-tradesmen the product-time method is usually the most 
useful. In certain cases, however, as in the auto driver, the 
process test can be used to greater advantage. With reference 
to the process method, it may be noted that although time 
may not be actually measured it is not wholly neglected, for 
the conditions of the experiment naturally set a limiting time 
for the carrying out of the operations. Provided the procedure 
is gone through within this time, which is ample, no note is 
made of the speed of the operation. 

Guiding Principles in Determining Selection of 
Performance Test 

The first requisite of the performance test is that the nature 
of the task should be, as far as possible, typical of the actual 
work of the trade. Where a trade, particularly in its higher 
branches, becomes very specialized, the actual task chosen for 
the performance test must be such that it is common to the 
maximum number of these specialized branches. It is also 
exceedingly desirable to arrange the test so that it can be used 
as an examination for all tradesmen, irrespective of their trade 
status. The rating of the tradesmen as apprentice, journey- 
man or expert should be determined by the time required for 
the completion of the task, by the quality of the workmanship, 
or by both. While for other than army conditions it may well 
be desirable that three performance tests be given, one being 
suited to those of apprentice standard, another to journeyman 
standard, and the third adapted to the expert group, yet this 



PERFORMANCE TEST METHOD 269 

method was not feasible for the rapid examination of men of 
unknown trade status in the army. 

The process test has certain merits. The most frequent and 
insistent contention of experts in the field is that it is necessary, 
in order to judge the skill of a tradesman, to watch him at work. 
Only by actually observing him on the job is it possible to get a 
full idea of the way in which he handles his tools, his material 
and himself. A judgment of this kind tends to include more 
than merely manual skill. It also gives a basis for estimation of 
general intelligence, physical strength, perseverance and the like. 

The chief demerit of the process test is that the judgment 
rendered by the examiner, even when an expert in the trade, 
is subjective. In a large majority of the cases where unskilled 
examiners must be used, it is impossible to obtain an adequate 
objective judgment. In opposition to this method of examina- 
tion, let us contrast the '' product- time" test. Here the final 
object produced has to be rated, and not the operations which 
led to its production. The examination of the object, with a 
view to rating, can be leisurely. It can be judged by reference 
to certain standard samples or objects, and it can also be scored 
by several examiners, thereby greatly increasing the reliability 
of the judgment. The product test is also far superior to the 
process test from the standpoint of administration. The process 
test calls for continuous observation by the examiner, his time 
is apt to be taken up exclusively by one tradesman, whereas in 
the product time test, the examiner, after assigning the task 
and distributing the material and tools, has merely to note 
the time at which the candidate hands in the finished product. 
Consequently many examinations can be given simultaneously. 
It may be urged by some readers that an unduly fine line has 
been drawn between the process and the product form of ex- 
amination. There is, in the last analysis, little distinction be- 



270 TRADE TESTS 

tween the two. In many cases they are so interrelated that 
even for purposes of presentation there are certain dangers in 
making such a clear differentiation. Whenever the final product 
of an operation, together with the time taken for its perform- 




Sample page of performance test in operation (Lineman). 

ance, is judged, this judgment applies also indirectly to the 
process leading to the product. 

The more this relationship is analyzed, the clearer becomes 
the fact that the product-tune test covers almost everything 
involved in a process test. 

Assumuig. therefore, the general ad\dsabihty of using the 
product- time test, the question as to which operation should 
be chosen depends on a number of factors. Among these the 
following need special mention. 



PERFORMANCE TEST METHOD 271 

1. The operation should be sufficiently exact, so that time 
and product admit of accurate standardization, thereby en- 
abling objective judgments to be made. 

2. The combined ratings of time and quaHty of product should 
differentiate between men of different levels of trade abihty. 

3. The task should be of such a nature as to command the 
respect and establish the confidence of the tradesman. 

4. Equipment, material and tools must be reduced to the 
smallest practical quantity, and must be capable of standardiza- 
tion, so that all tests can be given under the same conditions. 

5. The operation must not require undue length of time for 
its completion, and should contain within itself as little repeti- 
tion of procedures as possible. 

To summarize, a performance test is a standardized practical 
trade job, involving the use of blue prints, material and tools char- 
acteristic of the trade. The purposes of a performance test are: 

1. To measure the ability of the candidate in the actual 
handling of the equipment, and material of his trade. 

2. To check the rating given by any of the ordinary interview 
methods. Discrepancies between the candidate's performance 
ability and his rating by any oral interview method may be due 
to (a) language considerations, (b) coaching, (c) technical school 
training. 

3. To give an objective rating when the nature of the trade is 
such that an oral examination cannot be satisfactorily given. 



CHAPTER \ II 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF A PERFORMANCE 

TEST 

The Construction of a Performance Trade Test 

When, for any of the above reasons, it was tentatively decided 
to construct a performance trade test, the stages through which 
the test passed were as follows: 

1. Inquiry concerning feasibility of this t}'pe of test. 

2. Collection of trade information and material. 

3. Preliminary testing on not less than three experts, three 
journeymen and three apprentices. 

4. Revision and final formulation. 

5. Final testing on a larger group of apprentices, journeymen 
and experts. 

6. Statistical treatment of results and cahbration of the test. 

It will be seen that these stages closely correspond to those 
through which the oral and picture test pass. In describing 
these processes for a performance test it will only be necessary 
to show where the differences in procedure exist, and to discuss 
the peculiar difficulties arising in connection with the construc- 
tion of such a test. 

Inquiry Concerning Feasibility of This Type of Test 

The first point of investigation concerns the relationship 
existing in the trade between information and manual skill. 
This inquiry consists of a review of : 

272 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 273 

1. The equipment, materials and tools with which a man 

works. 

2. The kind of work produced. 

3. Trade processes, such as laying out, cutting, etc. 

(a) An enumeration and description of the significant 

elements. 

(b) A classification of these elements, particularly with 

reference to whether they belong primarily to the 
work of an apprentice, journeyman or expert. 
The sources of this information are: 

1. Suggestions from experts. 

2. Suggestions from employers. 

3. Literature of the trade, which may be in the form of text 

books or catalogs. 

4. The methods of training in trade schools. 

5. Trade investigations. 

Collection of Trade Information and Material 

Using the methods and facilities above described, by looking 
at products and processes in the shop, a compilation is made of 
that material which might contribute to the construction of 
the performance test. This compilation is made in conference 
with several expert tradesmen in different plants, working 
under different conditions. From what has already been said 
concerning the difficulties of securing a single job which may 
be representative of trade ability and trade skill, it will be 
apparent that these performances have to be selected with the 
greatest degree of care. An operation is of no service as the 
basis of a performance test unless (i) it will differentiate be- 
tween different levels of trade abihty ; (2) it can be administered 
with fairly simple equipment; (3) it can be administered and 
be rated in an objective manner by a non-tradesman. All of 



274 TRADE TESTS 

the above considerations have to be taken into account in the 
selection of the hnal performance which is to be used in the test. 
A particular job may confoim to one or two of the requirements 
and yet be useless because it fails to satisfy others. Again, the 
contribution made by the tradesman is found in the informa- 
tion furnished with regard to the suitability of the performance 
as a measure of trade ability. The contribution made by the 
compiler hes in the decision as to whether the job can be made 
to conform to the requirements of an objective test, suited to 
the other demands of the examination. Of the several possible 
jobs selected, all but one or two are eliminated by consultation 
with expert tradesmen or by rapid try-out. 

For the jobs which still appear to be suitable when all avail- 
able information has been obtained, the necessary tools and 
materials have to be collected. This involves in many cases 
the assembly of blue-prints, drawings, and detailed instruc- 
tions. The final stage of the compilation process is the reduction 
of the test to a tentative form in which specific instructions to 
the candidate are formulated, together with definite instruc- 
tions to the examiner with regard to the administration and 
scoring of the test. There must also be a complete statement of 
the equipment and facilities necessary for the carrying out of 
the process. WTiile these requirements cannot be completely 
met at this early stage the general nature of the test procedure 
must be outlined before the passage can be made to the next 
stage, that of the preliminary testing on tradesmen of different 
known levels of abihty. 

Preliminary Testing of Tentative Form of Performance Test 

When the performance test has been reduced to a fairly defi- 
nite form, particularly with regard to the instructions given 
to the tradesman and the equipment necessary for the process, 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 275 

the preliminary sampling takes place. This consists of adminis- 
tering the test to not less than three experts, three journeymen 
and three apprentices, the different grades of abihty being 
taken alternately. The functions of this preliminary experi- 
ment are manifold. The most essential information which is 
secured has reference to the differentiating value of the test, 
answering the question as to whether the performance, scored 
by any possible objective means, can be expected to differentiate 
between tradesmen of different abihties. It also serves to bring 
out the administrative difficulties of the test, and gives an 
approximate idea of the time consumed. Furthermore, it pro- 
vides information from which the scheme of scoring can be 
more fully constructed. In addition it furnishes a more accurate 
basis for the compilation of the necessary equipment, material 
and tools. It also reveals the extent to which the preliminary 
instructions to the candidate are adequate. Finally, it gives 
information with regard to the extent to which this particular 
test conforms or fails to conform to the other criteria of per- 
formance tests which have been mentioned. If the above re- 
quirements can be met and the difffculties avoided, the test now 
passes to the next stage. 

Revision and Final Formulation 

On the basis of the full records of the nine men tested, together 
with the finished products (when the test is of this type), the 
process of revision now takes place. Some elements of the test, 
which prove to have no differentiating value, are eliminated; 
other elements are altered and occasionally new elements, which 
the preliminary experiment brought to attention, are added. 
These changes necessitate the drawing up in final form, collect- 
ing the instructions to the candidate, a full statement of the 
test equipment, and also detailed instructions to the examiner 



^ 



^276 TRADE TESTS 

as regards administration. The performance test is now in its 
final form and it remains hereafter unchanged. Following these 
precise directions, the test is now administered in a routine 
manner, for the purpose of final testing and calibration. 

Final Testing on Larger Group of Apprentices, 
Journeymen and Experts 

Using the criteria of apprentice, journeyman and expert which 
have already been given in the description of the oral test, fifteen 
apprentices, fifteen journeymen and fifteen experts were now 
subjected to the standardized form of examination. These trades- 
men w^ere taken from different plants, working under different 
trade conditions. Ideally the examination should have been 
given in different locaUties, as was the case in the oral and picture 
tests, but this was not found to be practicable. During these 
examinations the fullest notes were taken, the times of perform- 
ance noted, and the finished products labeled. These records 
furnished the basis for the last stage through which the test 
passed. 

Statistical Treatment of Results or Calibration of Test 

The method of evaluation varies so much from test to test, 
that it is impossible to describe, except in the most general 
terms, the process whereby the final method of scoring in each 
test was evolved. The procedure in the case of the oral test 
standardization was always the same, and eventually it de- 
veloped into a purely routine statistical procedure. This was 
not the case with the performance test. Here there was room 
for the utmost ingenuity in the selection and weighting of the 
different elements which comprised the whole examination. It 
will be necessary to refer to the methods of scoring shown in 
the tests themselves, to realize the significance of this state- 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 277 

ment. The following, however, gives in a general way an ac- 
count of the procedure. The object of the evaluation was to 
pick out certain elements of the test, usually quaHties of the 
product, and to weight these qualities in such a manner that 
when combined with the time factor, the most marked differen- 
tiation between the three levels of tradesmen was obtained. 
In other words, a numerical expression had to be worked out, 
in which the various elements of the test were so appraised that 
the test would exert its maximum differentiating power. To 
accomplish this purpose, it was necessary to single out those 
aspects of the test which, in addition to differentiating, were 
also capable of being scored on an objective basis. The extent 
to which objectivity of marking was secured was discovered by 
framing standardized directions for scoring, and then noting the 
variation which existed between the marks given by various 
examiners. When reasonable objectivity of scoring was ob- 
tained with reference to a particular aspect of the test, a full 
description of what constituted the various scores was compiled. 
It can readily be seen that certain phases of the operation are 
of much greater importance than others. This was recognized 
in the marking by assigning different scores to different ele- 
ments. This is what is meant by ''weighting" the various parts 
of the test. In deciding the amount of these weightings, graphs 
were drawn, somewhat similar to that which has been presented 
in the corresponding stage of the oral test. The combined 
scores on all aspects of the tests were thus determined for the 
forty-five tradesmen to whom the test was given, and from this 
distribution the critical scores corresponding to apprentice, 
journeyman, and expert status were then determined, the lines 
of demarcation of the three levels being so chosen as to secure 
the maximum correspondence between the verdict of the test 
and the known trade abilities of the workmen. This completen 



278 TRADE TESTS 

the stages through which the performance test passed from the 
initial inquiry concerning its feasibility to the final determina- 
tion of norms of performance. 



Drv'isioxs or a Pertormaxce Test in Its Fixal Form 

I. The first part consists oj the test specifications, which are 
described under three heads: 

A. Equipment. 

B. ^lateriaL 

C. Tools= 

II . The second part consists of instructions to examiners. 

These instructions may be divided into two parts: 

A. Those instructions which are necessary for the prepara- 
tion of the test. 

B. Instructions to be given to the candidate. These instruc- 
tions are usuaUy of an oral nature, and explain to the candidate 
the nature of the task, making the necessarv^ reference to blue- 
prints, diagrams and specifications. They are given in a per- 
fectly standardized way. It is merely a matter of reading -the 
directions. The examiner is not allowed to de^-iate in the least 
degree from the printed form. V>Tien these instructions had been 
given, it was customar}^ to say to the candidate: "Xow just to 
make sure that you understand what is wanted, suppose you 
tell me what you are going to do.'' The examiner at this stage 
was allowed to repeat all, or any part of the instructions, but 
he was not allowed to alter or add to them in any way. If 
during the performance the candidate asked any questions, the 
examiner was restricted to repeating merely that part of the 
prescribed instruction which covered the question asked. If 
the question covered a field not touched upon in the instruction. 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 279 

the examiner answered: '^I have given you all the instructions 
which are allowed in this test." 

III. Instructions to examiner with reference to scoring. 
These may be divided into two parts: 

A. Detailed instructions with regard to scoring the various 
qualitative aspects of the product. As full an account as possi- 
ble of the requirements of each aspect necessary to receive a 
certain credit is given. 

B. Full directions are also given as to the manner in which 
the time factor should be treated, when it enters. 

C. Final rating of candidate. When the total score of the 
candidate, which may be in terms of time, in terms of quality, 
or in both, has been calculated, the examiner has merely to 
follow the directions given under ''Basis for scoring" to decide 
whether the candidate is an expert, journeyman, apprentice or 
novice. 

IV. Method of administering performance test. 

The following are the general instructions, issued to the 
examiners for giving the Performance Test. 

Giving the Tests 

1. Before giving a test, the examiner will make a statement 
to the candidate which must cover and be limited to the follow- 
ing points: 

(a) Name of the trade. 

(b) Reason for giving the test. 

(c) Importance of working carefully or rapidly, or both. 

2. The exact wording is not prescribed because of the obvious 
difficulty of making it suit all examiners under varying conditions. 

Note the following sample statement: ''We are going to give 
you a practical job in Pattern Making to find out how much 



280 TRADE TESTS • 

you know about your trade. Work as quickly and as well as 
you can." Follow with the specific instructions. 

3. Specific instructions for every performance test are differ- 
ent. Therefore examiners will study carefully each perform- 
ance test before attempting to give it. 

4. A performance test consists of five parts: 

I. Test equipment. 

II. Instructions to the examiner. 

III. Instructions to the candidate. 

IV. Instructions to the scorer. 
V. Instructions to the rater. 

Test Equipment 

1. Equipment, materials and tools are described in detail. 
There should be no departure from these specifications. 

2. In some tests the layout or arrangement of equipment 
before the candidate, determines the character of the test. 
The exact position of each part in relation to the other parts 
of the test is specified. Any deviation from the prescribed 
arrangement destroys the value of the test. 

3. AU cutting tools, such as chisels, drills, saws, and the 
like, must be sharp and in good condition for each test. 

Instructions to the Candidate 

1. Instructions which the examiner is to give the candidate 
are specified in each test. These instructions must not be 
changed or added to in any way. 

2. After the candidate has received these instructions the 
examiner will ask him, '^\re there any questions?" 

3. The examiner may repeat, when necessar\^, aU or any part 
of the instructions. The examiner will answer no questions 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 281 

the candidate may ask during the test except by repeating the 
printed words which relate to the question asked. 

4. When time is an element of the test, the examiner will 
record the time required by the candidate to do the work. The 
time spent in giving the original instructions will not be included. 

Scoring 

1. Before attempting to score the product, the examiner must 
be familiar with the ''Basis for Scoring." 

2. Partial credits will be given only when permitted by 
''Requirements." 

3. Owing to the time and care required to score certain 
products, it is advisable in these cases to dismiss the candidate 
and to forward the product to special scorers. 

4. In these cases when the product is not scored by the 
examiner administering the test, he shall enter the candidate's 
name and organization upon a tag or upon the product itself 
and on an accompanying form forward the product to th? 
special scorers. 

5. The candidate will be rated according to the instructions 
given in each test. 

Sample Performance Tests 

On the following pages are reproduced several performance 
tests. These are taken as typical of the various methods em- 
ployed in the construction of the tests. No attempt is made to 
analyze the description of the method of administration or the 
method of scoring. If these are not obvious to the reader in 
those trades in which he has adequate information, it is a con- 
demnation of the instruments. 



282 TRADE TESTS 



TRADE TEST 
CARPENTER. — Pattern Maker, Wood 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE OX CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

TEST EQUIPMENT 
Equipment : 

I Woodworker's bench \dse. 

5 Feet of bench space, with bench stop. 

Material : 

I Piece of white pine f x 5J x 12 inches. 

I Piece of J inch tight dowehng, 6 inches long. 

I Piece of 3% inch leather fillet, 6 inches long. 

12 I J inch brads No. 17. 

12 i| inch brads No. 17. 

I I pint bottle of LePage's glue. 

Tools: 

I Jack plane. . 

I Smooth plane. 

I I inch paring chisel. 

I lb. claw hammer. 

I Cross cut saw, 18 inch blade. 

I 2% inch dividers (H & S No. d)^ or No. 810). 

I Marking gauge. 

I 9 inch combination square, with bevel protractor^ 

I Ratchet brace, 10 inch sweep. 

I } inch wood bit, square shank. m 

I f inch wood bit, square shank. 

I f inch wood bit, square shank. 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 



283 



I No. I nail set. 

I Contraction rule for cast iron and steel. 

I Fillet iron, length 6| inches. 

I 6 inch try square. 

I I foot rule. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO THE EXAMINER 

Make certain that the TEST EQUIPMENT is complete and 

ready for the test. 

Record the time required by the candidate to do the work. Do 

not include the time spent in giving preliminary instructions. 

Use Plate 8-p, to identify the parts and measurements referred to 

in the BASIS FOR SCORING. Do not permit the candidate to 

see this plate. 

Hand the candidate blue-print 8-p, No. i. 





i 1 








7T .l-iii.. 


1 


'\ 


' 


r 


K- 


ys'DuW 


.1 


-,i, 








1 


V. 


j 




! 


1 


^ 


t 


_± 






r— 


-1^- 








"^ 




/• 




f 


T 
- i 

1 


1 
1 
1 

1 


1 / 
1 

1 

1 


.1 


\ J 1 
1 1 
1 1 
] 1 


















L r.^/" J\^^/\ 


li. 


^ IS III! 






1 ^" 


+ 




A 


(.^orea noie 




^ .. 1 1 


J 


MaKe a raiiern ror mis 

"Cast Steei Bracket" 

according to this Drawing. 






Finish only where shown. 






WAR DEPARTMENT 

Committee on Classification 

of Personnel 

TRADE TEST DIVISION 

Performance Test 














7 


■12-18 






-zp 1 



284 TRADE TESTS 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CANDIDATE 

1. Say to the candidate: "Look at the instructions on this blue- 
print while I read them." Read distinctly and slowly all legends 
and measurements. Point to each thing as you read it. 

2. Say to the candidate: ''Are there any questions?" 

3. Repeat, if necessary, all or any part of the instructions on the 
blue-print. Do not change them in any way. 

4. Answer any questions the candidate may ask during the test by 
re-reading the instructions printed on the blue-print. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO THE SCORER AND RATER 

Study carefully Plate 8-p. 
Figure lA pictures a correct product. 

Figure iB shows the same product in its approximate moulding 
position. Two sets of doweling are shown. Either the two dowels 



tdMsr-jfc/er/o/^ y^ 




at right angles to Block #1, or the two dowels parallel to Block #2, 
are acceptable, but both sets on one product are wrong. Core prints 
may be attached at different places; (i) c.p. (Core print) #1 or #2 
may be omitted; (2) with c.p. #2 omitted, c.p. #1 may be reversed, 
i.e., point M may be at point N; (3) c.p. #3 may be substituted for 
c.p. #1 with or without c.p. #2. Measurement O, angle P and the 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 



285 



tightness of the fit of Block #4 to Block #2 are not significant in the 
scoring of this test. 

Figures 2A and B show a partially incorrect product. Reference 
will be made to this product to illustrate incorrect procedure. 




Plate 8-p 

Rate a candidate A whose product has one of the following defects; 
(except under the condition described in the special note at the end 
of the following list): 

DIMENSIONS (in inches) Fig. 2A. 

Less Than More Than 
I. Fig. 2A"A" 53V 



2l6 



2. Fig. 2A"B" 4 

3. Fig. 2A''C" 

4. Fig. 2A"D" A 

5. Fig. 2A"E" : 2 

6. Fig. 2A"F" H 

7. Fig. 2A "G" and "H" if 

8. Fig. 2A"I" if 

9. Fig. 2A'7" A 



5X6" 



2i6 



re 



1 3 

T6^ 
] 7 
16 
17. 
16 



16 



BLOCK #1. 

10. Figs. iB, 2B. Grain in direction at right angles to grain shown. 

11. Fig. iB. Absence of loose angle block, as Block #4. (See 

note at end of hst.) 



286 



TRADE TEST 



12. Fig. iB. Entire Block =i attach solidly. (See note at end 

of "isi. 

i;. Fig. iB. Entire Block =i doweled. 

14. Fig. :B. -\ngle between Blocks =1 and =2 other than 60°. 




Ce^re ^J9»ivT "V 



BLOCK =2. 

15. Figs. iB. 2B. Grain in direction at right angles to grain shown 

for Block =2. 

16. Fig. :A. •Drilled hole" drilled through- 




Plate ^--p 



17. Fig. 
iS. Figs, 

BLOCK = 



:A. Dowel holes drilled through. 

2 A. 2B. Absence of nllet. 



10. Figs. iB. 2B. Grain in direction at right angles to grain shown 
for Block =3. 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 287 

20. Fig. 2B. Block #3 attached to Block #2 as shown by con- 

struction W is not acceptable. The correct method is shown 
by construction X, Fig. iB. 

21. Fig. iB. Absence of core prints #1, 2 or 3 from Block #3. 

(See note at end of this Hst.) 

22. Core print spHt. 

23. Fig. 2B. "Cored hole" drilled through. Block #3. (See note 

at end of this hst.) 

24. Fig. I A, iB. Core print #3 substituted for core print #2. 

NOTE: Fig. lA construction Y shows an alternate correct 
method of making this pattern. If the small piece, such as indicated 
by construction Y, is left loose, the following methods of construc- 
tion are acceptable: 

(i) Absence of loose angle block as Block #4. 

(2) Entire Block #1 attached solidly. 

(3) Absence of core print i, 2 or 3 from Block #3. 

(4) "Cored hole" drilled through. 

Rate a candidate J whose product does not have one of the above 
twenty-four defects and who completes the work between 120 and 
71 minutes inclusive. 

Rate a candidate E whose product does not have one of the above 
twenty-four defects and who completes the work in 70 minutes or less. 

Rate a candidate N whose product does not consist of three or four 
blocks: Nos. i, 2, 3, 4. 



288 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 
PIPE FITTER. — Steam Fitter 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

TEST EQUIPMENT 
Equipment : 

1 Mitre radiator coil ^ to consist of the following parts: 

2 I inch 4-pipe headers (ij inch inlets). 
4 I inch right and left elbows. 

I I inch nipple 13! inches long. 

I I inch nipple iif inches long. 

I I inch nipple 9 inches long. 

I I inch nipple 6i inches long. 

I I inch right and left nipple 14! inches long. 

I I inch right and left nipple iif inches long. 

I I inch right and left nipple gf inches long. 

I I inch right and left nipple 6f inches long. 

Replacement Material : 

4 I inch right and left elbows. 

Maintenance Material: 

I 2 lb. can of Dixon's graphite. (This is to be mixed with oil to 
keep the pipes in good condition.) 

Tools: 

I 18 inch genuine Stillson wrench with metal handle. 
I 2 foot rule. 

^ All threads on the nipples should be run down so that three full turns can be 
made by hand. 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 



289 




290 TRADE TESTS 

I Piece of colored crayon. 

I Piece of paper approximately 24 inches square. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO THE EXAMINER 

1. Make certain that the TEST EQUIPMENT is complete and 
ready for the test. 

2. Place all the parts of the Radiator Coil on the floor exactly in the 
manner indicated on Plate 14-s, No. 2. 

3. Record the time required by the candidate to do the work. Do 
not include the time spent in giving preUminary instructions. 
Since time is the only criterion for judging the candidate's ability 
in this test make certain that the time is recorded accurately. 

4. In no case permit the candidate to see the assembled coil or to see 
another candidate takinoj this same test. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CANDIDATE 

1. Say to the candidate: "Make up this Radiator Coil. Make it up 
snug — a Uttle tighter than by hand. Don't make it up too tight 
because it must be used over and over again." 

2. Say to the candidate: "Are there any questions?" 

3. Repeat, if necessary, all or any part of the above instructions. 
Do not change them in any way. 

4. Answer any questions the candidate may ask during the test by 
repeating the above instructions. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RATER 

1. Rate a candidate on the basis of the time required to put the coil 
together. In order to be rated at all on the basis of tim^e the can- 
didate must at least have each of the pipes tighter than can be 
turned by hand. If any one of the nipples is omitted or if any one 
of the nipples is loose rate the candidate N. 

2. Rate a candidate's proficiency in this trade according to the 
following standards: 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 291 

Score Rating 

i8 minutes and less E 

19 to 34 minutes inclusive J 

35 to 115 minutes inclusive. A 

116 minutes or longer N 

Coil imperfectly assembled as stated in para- 
graph I N 



29a TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 
SHEET METAL WORKER. — General 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

TEST EQUIPMENT 

EQUIPMENT 

4 feet of bench space. Bench with holes adequate to mount hatchet 
stake and beakhorn. 

1 Block of wood 4x4x4 inches. 

MATERIAL 

2 Pieces of No. 24 plain (not ingot) galvanized sheet iron 4x7 inches. 
6 i^ pound tinners rivets. 

TOOLS 

I Tinners snips: straight; length of jaws from pivot 3I inches. 

I Tinners riveting hammer: weight ij pounds; size of face i inch. 

I Rivet set for i| pound rivets. 

I Tinners soUd rivet punch to make J inch hole. 

I Tinners grooving tools to make \ inch grooved seam. 

I Tinners mallet: face diameter 2 J inches. 

I Tinners hatchet stake: length of blade 7 inches. 

I Tinners beakhorn: end diameter (largest) 2 inches; weight. 28 

pounds. 
I I foot rule. 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 293 

INSTRUCTIONS TO EXAMINER 
PREPARING THE TEST: 

1. Hand the candidate the two pieces of galvanized iron specified 
in TEST EQUIPMENT. 

2. Use the accompanying picture to make certain that the 
candidate's product fulfills the requirements, but do not 
permit the candidate to see this picture. 





INSTRUCTING THE CANDIDATE: 

1. Say to the candidate: "Connect these two pieces with a lock 
seam, grooved at the 4 inch side. Make into a 'cup' about 
4 inches in diameter, with top turned over twice to the out- 
side of the 'cup.' Seam with three rivets. Turn out bottom 
edge i inch ready for seaHng on the bottom." 

2. Say to the candidate: "Now just to make sure that you 
understand what is wanted, suppose you tell me what you 
are going to do." 

3. Repeat all or any part of the instructions above, if necessary, 
but neither alter nor add to them in any way. 

4. Answer any questions the candidate may ask during the 
test by repeating that part of the prescribed instructions 
which covers the questions asked. 

INSTRUCTIONS TO SCORER 
SCORING THE CANDIDATE'S PRODUCT: 

If the candidate completes the "cup" as instructed and if all 
the operations shown by the picture have been performed^ 



TRADE TESTS 

rate him on the basis of the length of time required to make the 
''cup." 

RATING THE CANDIDATE: 

Rate a candidate "J" (journeyman or skilled tradesman) who 

completes the "cup" in 26 minutes or less. 

Rate a candidate "A" (apprentice or partly skilled tradesman) 

who completes the "cup" in less than 60 minutes. 

Rate a candidate "N" (novice) who requires more than 60 

minutes or who omits any of the required operations; i.e., a 

"cup" shape, grooved seam, riveted seam, top turned over and 

bottom edge turned out. - ". 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 



295 



TRADE TEST 
ELECTRICIAN. — Interior Wireman 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 




TEST EQUIPMENT 
EQUIPMENT 

I Alcohol torch and blow pipe (Bernz No. lo). 

1 Tliis jig consists of joists and cross pieces to resemble a part of a ceiling, and 
is constructed as shown in blueorint lo w-i. 



296 TRADE TESTS 

12 Standard Porcelain insulating tubes, five-sixteenths of an inch 
wide and three inches long. 

6 Standard Porcelain insulating spUt knobs. 

I Cleat rosette — Bryant, catalog No. 965.^ 

I Moulding rosette — Bryant, fuseless "Junior," catalog No. 299. 

I Concealed rosette — "Junior" concealed, catalog No. 298. 
12 No. 9 Flat Head bright wood screws 2| inches long. 
12 No. 7 Flat Head bright wood screws i| inches long. 

3 feet of bench space. 
80 inches of | inch circular insulating loom cut to the following 
dimensions: 

1 piece 4 feet long. 

2 pieces each of the following lengths: 

2 inches, 
5 inches, 
9 inches. 

MATERIAL ^ 

I I lb. roll of friction tape, f inch wide. 
I I lb. roll of rubber insulating tape, f inch wide. 
I 2 oz. can of soldering paste. 
I lb. of wire solder. 
10 ft. B. & S. No. 18 gauge cotton covered twisted lamp cord. 
400 ft. No. 14 gauge single strand electric light wire (insulated). 
Western Electric List No. 660013. 

TOOLS 

I screw driver with blade 6 inches long and J inch wide. 
I pair 8 inch Kline side cutting pliers. 
I ordinary pocket knife. 

NSTRUCTIONS TO EXAMINER 
PREPARATION FOR THE TEST: 

Place the jig (the section of joists and supports) upon the 
bench with the floor-side up. 

* Catalog numbers refer to Western Electrical Supply Year Book, 1918. 
2 Sufficient to test 50 men. 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 



297 



INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATE: 

I. Say to the candidate: "This is part of a ceiHng: joists and 
cross pieces. This side is the floor above (examiner points to 
this) and this side (examiner points to opposite side) is the 



r 


c- 




b^H 












o 


^U : 


] tK 


\ro 




s 


s 






^ 




" 


-A 


is=^ 


St 

FK 


/ 




' — t 


-^— ^ 


uz 






^ ' 



'it 



J 



i. 



I 

I UJOO-| 






B= 










^ 



9 
^ o 



-92- 



UJOO-] 

aiqixaij 




§5 
1° 

(/) o 

o I 

o 
S DO 



plaster ceiling below." (Examiner should hold the jig slightly 
above the level of his head so that the candidate can see the 
resemblance to the situation described.) "Run two feed 
wires ACROSS and THROUGH both joists, using holes al- 



298 TRADE TESTS 

ready drilled. From these main lines tap off leads in parallel 
and drop a lamp cord from this support (examiner points to 
the support). Use any material necessary, but do not use 
any more than you have to. Do your work as if it were a 
regular finished job." 

2. Say to the candidate: "Now tell me what you are supposed 
to do." 

3. Repeat all or any part of the instructions above, if necessary, 
but neither alter nor add to them in any way. 

4. Answer any questions the candidate may ask during the test 
by repeating that part of the prescribed instructions which 
covers the question asked. 

SCORING THE CANDIDATES PRODUCT: 

1. After the candidate has f nished the test, and before attempt- 
ing to credit any part of the product, read through carefully 
the entire BASIS FOR SCORING and check each require- 
ment against the corresponding part of the product, so that 
you will understand thoroughly how to give proper credit. 

2. In all cases score the candidate's product on the basis of the 
REQUIREMENTS provided in BASIS FOR SCORING, not 
on what you think the finished product is worth. 

3. For that product which agrees with the definition of 
"perfect" Score i 

4. For that product which agrees with the definition of 
"failure " Score o 

5. Give credit to each SCORING UNIT in accordance with the 
REQUIREMENTS enumerated in the BASIS FOR SCOR- 
ING. 

6. Add up the credits which the candidate obtains on the indi- 
vidual scoring units. This is the candidate's Performance 
Test Score. 

7. Record the time when the candidate actually begins and 
finishes work. 

RATING THE CANDIDATE: 

Rate a candidate "J" (journeyman or skilled tradesman) 
who fulfills both the following requirements: 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 299 

'I. Score: 9 points or more. 

2. Time: 30 minutes or less. 
Rate a candidate "A" (apprentice or partly skilled trades- 
man) who fulfills both the following requirements: 

1. Score: Between 2 and 8 points inclusive. 

2. Time: More than 30 minutes. 

Rate a candidate ^'N" (novice) who scores less than 2 points. 

BASIS FOR SCORING 
SCORING UNIT REQUIREMENTS CREDIT 

1. Wiring 

Wires drawn through joists, leads tapped off and lamp 
cord dropped from ceiling support, although incor- 
rectly done I 

Failure to do any one of these things o 

2. Installing Main 

Wires drawn through the two outside holes (5 inches 

apart) through both joists i 

Wires dra^^Ti through any pair of holes less than 5 
inches apart o 

3. Connections, Main 

Connections on main lines located as on blueprint 10 

w-i, Fig. I, parts c,c i 

Connections located elsewhere o 

4. Knobs 

Insulating knobs located as shown on blueprint 10 

w-i, Figs. No. I and No. 3; parts k,k i 

Insulating knobs located elsewhere 

5. Insulation from Main 

Insulation of lead wire from main lines by means of 
flexible conduit or porcelain insulator taped to wire. . i 
Absence of such insulation o 

6. Tape 

Friction tape covers entirely the rubber tape and rub- 
ber tape wrapped tightly around all open wires i 

Rubber tape or open wire exposed o 



300 TRADE TESTS 

7. Solder 

Connections on main lines soldered tightly i 

Loose connections or absence of solder o 

8. Loom 

Circular loom extends from last knob to, and projects . 

through ceiling support to rosette i 

Absence of or length of conduit less than from last 
knob to support o 

9. Rosette 

Use of rosette with concealed connections i 

Use of either of the other rosettes o 

10. Knot 

'' Underwriter's knot"' (see blueprint 10 w-i, Fig. 4) or 

wires taped to prevent pulling through rosette i 

Absence of knot or tape o 

11. Screws 

Connections, screws and rosette tight i 

Connection screws loose o 

12. Lamp Cord 

Lamp cord ends twisted and soldered i 

Ends not twisted or not soldered o 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 301 

TRADE TEST 
MACHINIST AND MECHANIC. — General 

(Bench Hand and Assembler) 
PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

TEST EQUIPMENT 

Equipment : 

I Machinists' Bench Vise; 4 inch jaw, to weigh not less than 

40 pounds. 
4 Feet of bench space. 

Material : 

I piece of cold rolled steel | x i x 3! inches. 

Tools : 

I Miller Falls adjustable hack saw frame. 
3 8 inch Star hack saw blades. 
I 8 inch fiat file, #00 cut.^ 

1 8 inch fiat file, #0 cut.^ 

2 Wooden File Handles. 

I 9 inch Starrett combination square.^ 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE EXAMINER 

I. Make certain that the TEST EQUIPMENT is complete and 
ready for the test. 

^ This is the Nicholson size and cut of file, but another make of file, with 
equivalent size and cut, may be used. 
2 This square will also be used to score the test product. 



302 



TRADE TESTS 




A PERFORMANCE TEST 



303 











t 


\ 

-J— 


9t 

\ 






i 
^* 

CM 

j 


i 

"cm 

1 




\ 


1 
1 

1 e 


I-H 
1 



1- 


1 




z 






0) 


o 
> 


1- 


h- 


m 


c 


1- 


0) 


Ld 
Q 


O 


c 
o 


o 

c 


c 
o 


12 
(2! 


UJ 
UJ 


(0 

E 


< 


E 


o 


1- 


^ 


^ 


E 







T3 

I ID 

Q 
Q 
< 



C 00 



3 


5 




O 


f 


£ 


> 


Q 


c 


_J 


c 


V 




o 


<u 


B 


c 


^ 


0) 


5 


(U 


^ 


o 


^ 


•fj 




E 


0) 


^ 


TJ 




o 


o 


h" 


^ 


o 
o 


.<2 


^ 


fij 


x: 




0) 



O 

o ^ .9> 

T3 2 O 
C $ 



4. 



Record the time required by the candidate to do the work. Do 
not include the time spent in giving preHminary instructions. 
Use Plate 6-g, No. 2, to identify the parts and measurements re- 
ferred to in the BASIS FOR SCORING. Do not permit the can- 
didate to see this plate. 
Hand the candidate blue-print 6-g, No. i. 



304 TRADE TESTS 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CANDIDATE 

1. Say to the candidate: "Look at the mstructions on this blue-print 
while I read them." Read distinctly and slowly all legends and 
measurements. Point to each thing as you read it. 

2. Say to the candidate: '"Are there any questions?" 

3. Repeat, if necessary, all or any part of the instructions on the 
blue-print. Do not change them in any way. 

4. If the candidate approaches the examiner after he has commenced 
work and informs the examiner that he has made a mistake and 
asks of the examiner what he shall do, say: ''Go ahead and make 
a good fit any way." 

5. Answer no other questions the candidate may ask. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO THE SCORER 

1. Before attempting to score any part of the product, read through 
carefully the entire BASIS FOR SCORING. 

2. Identify each Scoring Unit with the corresponding part of the 
product so that you vdYL understand what parts of the product are 
to be scored. 

3. Identify each condition described in the Requirements with the 
corresponding part of the product. Use plate 6-g to facihtate this 
identification. 

4. Consider each Scoring Unit singly and in the order specified. 
Make certain you can identify the conditions which receive full, 
partial, or zero scores. 

5. Score each part of the product separately and in the order specified. 

6. Score each Scoring Unit strictly in accordance with the printed 
Requirements. 

7. Add up the credits which the candidate obtains on the indi\'idual 
Scoring Units. This is the candidate's Quahty Score. 

8. Study carefully Figures i, 2 and 3 on Plate 6-g, No. 2. When 
recording read all measurements to the nearest 64th of an inch. 
Record the actual measurement first — then determine its varia- 
tion. 

Fig. I shows the assembled product. ^ 



A PERFORMANCE. TEST 305 

Fig. 2 shows how to obtain the measurements CD-EF, CJ, KF, 
and the squareness of the pieces at A and H. 

Fig. 3 shows how the pieces should be placed on the steel rule 
of the square to obtain measurements BC, I J, IJ-KL, i.e., the 
distance between the two pieces at these points when fitted 
together. 

BASIS FOR SCORING 

Scoring Unit Requirements Score 

1. CD-EF. Record distances CD and EF to the nearest 

64th of an inch. Fig. 2 shows how these meas- 
urements are to be obtained. Allow a varia- 
tion (from if inch) on each CD and EF of 
-^th of an inch plus or minus without record- 
ing it as a variation, i.e., an actual variation 
of "eTths will be called -^ths. Sum the variations 
for both pieces, disregarding the signs, i.e., plus 
or minus. 

eVth inch or less variation (allowing for -^th 

inch plus or minus) 4 

Between i^ths and -g^ths inclusive 3 

Between ii-ths and f f ths inclusive 2 

Between ff ths and ff ths inclusive i 

Beyond f f ths o 

2. CJ. Record the distance CT to the nearest 64th of 

inch. Fig. 2 shows how to obtain this meas- 
urement. Allow no variation. 
Less than ^th inch variation from i^ths 

inch 4 

■^th variation, plus or minus 2 

More than -eVth inch variation o 

3. KF. Record distance KF to the nearest 64th of an 

inch. Fig. 2 shows how to obtain this measure- 
ment. Allow no variation. 
Less than -^th inch variation from ro ths inch . 4 

■^th variation, plus or minus 2 

More than erth inch variation o 



306 TRADE TESTS 

4. A. Fig. 2 shows how the squareness at A and H 

are measured. Place corner A in the angle of 
the square so that side AB rests squarely against 
the hand piece. If the angle is less than 90° 
read (to nearest 64th inch) distance from rule 
edge to Point E. If angle is greater than 90° 
permit point E to rest against rule and read 
distance from point A to the rule. Use the 
6-inch steel scale to obtain these measurements. 
Allow no variation. 

Less than -e V^h inch variation 6 

■^th inch variation 2 

-^ths inches or more variation o 

5. H. The squareness at H is obtained in the same 

manner as the squareness at A. 

Less than -g-Tth inch variation 6 

•^th inch variation 2 

-e^ths inches or more variation o 

6. BC-IJ. How the accuracy of the fit between the two 

pieces is obtained is shown in Fig. 3. Place 
edges EF and GH against the straight edge 
of the rule and press the two pieces to- 
gether. Use the smaU steel scale to obtain the 
distances between BC and I J. ^lake certain 
that the 45° angle runs upward to the right. 
Less than -rrth inch space between the two 

pieces 8 

■^th inch space between the two pieces. ... 2 
-^ths inch space between the two pieces. . . o 

7. IJ-KL. Obtain the distance between the edges IJ-KL 

while the tw^o pieces are in position described 

Scoring Unit 6. 
Less than -^th inch space between the two 

pieces 8 

eVth inch space between the two pieces 2 

■^ths inch space between the two pieces ... o 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 307 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RATER 

1. Rate a candidate's proficiency in his trade according to the fol- 
lowing standards: 

2. Rate a candidate E who scores ;2^$ points and above. 

3. Rate a candidate J who fulfills both the following requirements: 
(i) Score: 10 to 30 points inclusive. 

(2) Time: 120 minutes or less. 

4. Rate a candidate A who fulfills one of the following requirements 
(i) Score: i to 20 points inclusive, or 

(2) Time: 1 2 1 minutes or longer. 

5. Rate a candidate N who scores less than one point. 



308 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 

MACHINIST AND MECHANIC. — Lathe 

Operator 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

TEST EQUIPMENT 
Equipment : 

I Cast iron surface plate 7 x 7J inches, weight approximately 10 

lbs. 
I Cadillac steering spindle.^ 

Tools : 

I 6 inch Outside spring caliper, Brown & Sharpe No. 806. 

I 6 inch Inside spring caliper, Brown & Sharpe No. 807. 

I 9 inch Combination square. 

I o to I inch micrometer caliper with ratchet stop. 

I I to 2 inch microm.eter caliper with ratchet stop. 

T Pencil. 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE EXAMINER 

1. Make certain that the TEST EQUIPMENT is complete and ready 
for the test. 

2. Hand the candidate blue-print 6-l, No. i. 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CANDIDATE 

I. Say to the candidate: ''Look at the instructions on this blue-print 
while I read them/' Read distinctly and slowly all legends and 
measurements. Point to each thing as you read it. 

^ Cadillac Price List of Parts, 1919. Part number KK 3063. 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 



309 



2. Say to the candidate: "Are there any questions?" 

3. Repeat, if necessary, all or any part of the instructions on the 
blue-print. Do not change them in any way. 

4. Answer any questions the candidate may ask during the test by 
repeating the instructions on the blue -print. 



Taper 
per Foot 




With these Tools Measure this Piece where 
shown on this Drawing by Letters "A"-" B"-"C"-etc. 
Give all Measurements to the One Thousandth 
Part of an Inch. 

Write these Measurements on a separate 
Piece of Paper. 



WAR DEPARTMENT 

Committee on Classification 

of Personnel 

TRADE TEST DIVISION 

Performance Test 

Drawing No. 1 Approved 

7-10-18 6-L 



2. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO THE SCORER 

Score the candidate upon the Basis of the Measurements which he 
writes on the slip of paper supplied. All measurements are in 
inches. "Variations" in the BASIS FOR SCORING refers to 
variation from the correct measurement. 

Candidates will be scored in terms of variations from the correct 
measurements of the parts of the piece. A set of correct measure- 
ments will be furnished with each steering spindle. 



310 TRADE TESTS 

3. Before attempting to score any measurement, read through care- 
fuUy the entire BASIS FOR SCORING. 

4. Identify each Scoring Unit with the corresponding measurement 
so that you will understand what measurements are to be scored. 

5. Identify each condition described in the Requirements with the 
corresponding measurement. 

6. Consider each Scoring Unit singly and in the order specihed. 

7. Score each measurement separately and in the order specified, 
^lake certain of the degrees of variation which receive full, partial 
and zero scores. 

8. Score each Scoring Unit strictly in accordance with the printed 
Requirements. 

9. Add up the credits which the candidate obtains on the indi\idual 
Scoring Units. This is the candidate's Qualitj.* Score. 



BASIS FOR SCGRI^^G 

Scoring Unit Requirements Score 

I. A. Measurement A. 

Less than .0005 variation 8 

.0005 variation, plus or minus 2 

Greater \*ariation -. o 

^leasurement recorded in fractional form. o 

Measurement not recorded o 

2- B "vieasurement B. 

Less than .0005 variation 8 

.0005 variation, plus or minus 2 

Greater variation o 

Measurement recorded in fractional form. o 

Measurement not recorded o 

3. C. Measurement C. 

Less than .005 variation 4 

.01 variation 2 

Greater \-ariation o 

Measurement recorded in fractional form . . o 

Measurement not recorded o 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 311 

4. D. Measurement D. 

.002 variation 8 

.005 variation 2 

Greater variation o 

Measurement recorded in fractional form . . o 

Measurement not recorded o 

5. E. Measurement E. 

.01 2 variation 8 

Greater variation o 

Measurement recorded in fractional form o 

Measurement not recorded o 

6. F. Measurement F. 

.1 variation 4 

.3 variation 2 

Great variation o 

Measurement recorded in fractional form . . o 

Measurement not recorded o 

7. G. Measurement G. 

.2 variation less than correct measurement. 8 

Greater variation o 

Measurement not recorded o 

(If measurement is recorded in fractional 
form transmute to decimal.) 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RATER 

Rate a candidate's proficiency in his trade according to the follow- 
ing standards: 

Score Rating 

25 or less. . .A 

26 or more E 

Rate a candidate J who receives 

(i) Rating A on this performance test and a 
(2) Rating J or higher on Picture Trade Test.* 

* See Picture tests, p. 218. 



3H TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 
BLACKSMITH. — General 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE OX CLASSIFICATIOX OF PERSOXXEL 
LX THE .ARAIY 

Trade Tes: Di\ision 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjuiani General 

TEST EQUIPMENT 
Equipment : 

I Blacksmith's forge. 
I Blacksmith's an\il. 

1 ten quart pail. 

Material : 

2 pieces B B square rod iron f inches square and 4 inches long. 
Coke. 

Water. 

Tools: 

I Ball Peen Hammer. 2 lbs. 

I Round eye punch, size of point J inch with handle. 

I Pair Blacksmiths Tongs: Cast Steel. iS inches straight Up. 

I Straight Hardie. shank to ht am-il. 

I Pair 6 inch outside cahpers. 

I 12-inch metal blacksmiths rule. 

Scoring Tools : 

I o-inch Steel Scale. sixt}--fourths. 
I 6-inch outside spring cahper. 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE EXAMINER 

I. Make certain that the TEST EQLTP^MEXT is complete and 
readv for the test 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 



313 



2. Record the time when the candidate begins to work on the hook 
and when he finishes it. Do not include the time spent in giving 
preliminary instructions. 








-Mi== U] 






II 



3. Use Plate 7-g to identify the parts and measurements referred to 
in the BASIS FOR SCORING. Do not permit the candidate to 
see this plate. 

4. Hand the candidate blue-print 7-g, No. i. 



314 TRADE TESTS 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CANDIDATE 

1. Say to the candidate : "Build a fire in that forge." Do not include 
the time required to build the fire in the time recorded to make 
the hook. (A fire is usually built in 15 minutes or less.) 

2. When the candidate has built the fire, say: "Are you ready to 
take this test?" 

3. Say to the candidate: "Look at the instructions on this blue- 
print while I read them." Read distinctly and slowly all legends 
and measurements. Point to each thing as you read it. 

4. Say to the candidate: "Are there any questions?" 

5. Repeat, if necessary, all or any part of the instructions on the 
blue-print. Do not change them in any way. 

6. Answer any questions the candidate may ask during the test by 
repeating that part of the prescribed instructions which relate to 
the question asked. . 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE SCORER 

1. Before attempting to score any part of the product, read through 
carefuUy the entire BASIS FOR SCORING. 

2. Identify each Scoring Unit with the corresponding part of the 
product so that you will understand what parts of the product are 
to be scored. 

3. Identify each condition described in the Requirements with the 
corresponding part of the product. Use plate 7-g to facilitate this 
identification. 

4. Consider each Scoring Unit singly and in the order specified. 
Make certain you can identify the conditions which receive full, 
partial, and zero scores. 

5 Score each part of the product separately and in the order specified. 

6. Score each Scoring Unit strictly in accordance with the printed 
Requirements. 

7. Add up the credits which the candidate obtains on the individual 
Scoring Units. This is the candidate's Quality Score. 

8. Subtract from 60 the time required by the candidate to make this 
hook. This is the candidate's Time Score. Add the Time Score 
to the Quality Score. This is the candidate's Performance Test 
Score. 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 



S15 




316 TRADE TESTS 

BASIS FOR SCORING 
Scoring Unit Requirements Credit 

1. Operations. Forging this hook involves five opera- 

tions. For all operations performed, al- 
though incorrectly 74 

For each operation omitted subtract 
scores according to the following schedule: Subtract 
(i) Preparmg the weld (Fig. 2). This 
is the minimum acceptable perform- 
ance for rating a candidate "A" 

(2) Welding. 12 

(3) Twisting 12 

(4) Punching the eye 24 

(5) Bending the hook 24 

2. Twist. Follow through one surface of the twist. Score 

One-hah twist has been made if the twist 
finishes upon the side opposite from the 
surface where it began (Fig. i, No. 2). 

One-half twist or more 4 

Less than one-half tmst o 

Twist not at place of welding o 

Surfaces of twist so irregular that num- 
ber of quarter turns is doubtful o 

Tmst not made o 

3. Lap. At both ends of the weld the metal should 

be joined (welded) so as to make the sur- 
face continuous. A lack of union (a gap 
between the two pieces such that the 
shank of a pin will readily go in) between 
the two parts of the forging is called "lap." 
(Fig. I, No. 3, indicates where this lap is 
likely to be found.) 

Weld shows no lap 4 

Lap at one end of twist 2 

Lap at both ends of twist o 

Less than J turn in the twist o 

Weld not made o 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 317 

4. Rounding Rounding and Tapering of Hook Bend. 
Tapering. Bend of the hook is tapered and rounded 

(Fig. I, No. 4) 8 

Bend of the hook is tapered but not 

rounded, or 

Rounded but not tapered, or 

Neither rounded nor tapered, or 

Hook not bent o 

5. Squareness The stock should be square at points S-i 
of Stock. and S-2. This scoring unit should not be 

credited unless (i) the hook has been 
bent, (2) twist has been made, (3) eye has 
been punched. Add the maximum varia- 
tions (in sixteenths of an inch) from 
squareness for both dimensions at both 
points (Fig. 2, No. 5). 
Total variation xV of a-n inch or less 

from square 4 

Total variation more than xf of an 

inch from square o 

Any of the above three operations 
omitted o 

6. Length Overall length of hook (Fig. i, No. 6). 
overall. Credit this scoring unit o if one of these 

operations has been omitted: (i) Twist- 
ing, (2) Punching eye, (3) Bending hook. 
From 5i^ to 5y% inches inclusive .... 4 
From 5 inches to 51%^ inches inclusive . . 2 
From St 6 inches to 5xf inches inclusive 2 
Shorter or longer than these dimensions o 
Any one of above three operations 
omitted o 

7. Length. Length of hook under bend (Fig. i, No. 7). 

2 inches to 2x^6- inches inclusive 8 

itI, itI, 2i^, 2A inches 4 

Shorter than ili or longer than 2x*6-. . o 

Hook not bent o 



318 



TRADE TESTS 



S. Width. 



9- Ey^ 

centered. 



lo. Eye 
rounded. 



Width of metal enchchng eye. Record 
this dimension for the narrowest part of 
the e}e between the lines limiting the f 
circumference indicated in Fig. i. Xo. lo. 
Take this measurement with an outside 
calipers. 

T'6 or 1% inch S 

A inch 2 

Less than ^ inch o 

Eye not punched o 

Center of eye on center line of stock 

Yig. I. Xo. 0' S 

Center of eye more than iV of an inch on 

center line of stock o 

Eye not punched o 

The metal encircling the eye should be 
roimded. 

Encircling metal rounded for | of its 
circumference i.e. disregard part at 
stock and im m ediately adjacent Fig. 

I. Xo. 12 S 

Encircling metal is not rounded or only 
a feeble attempt has been made to 

round it o 

Encirclino: metal not rounded o 



mSTRUCTIONS TO THE RATER 

Rate a candidate's prohciency in his trade according to the follow- 
ing standards: 

Score Rating 

144 and above E 

143 to 132 inclusive J 

131 to 2 inclusive A 

Less than 2 X 

Inability- to build lire X 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 319 

TRADE TEST 
STENOGRAPHER AND TYPIST. — Typist 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE EXAMINER 

1. Make sure that the typewriter is in good condition. The only 
form of supplies needed is typewriter paper, Sj x ii. 

2. Say to the candidate: ^'Be seated at this typewriter. Insert 
paper and adjust the typewriter for single space." 

3. When these instructions have been compHed with give to the 
candidate the loose sheet of test copy and say: ^'Copy this as rapidly 
as possible, making no erasures and as few mistakes as possible, 
and report to me as soon as you are through." 

4. Record the starting time in minutes and seconds. This repre- 
sents the time at which the copy is handed to the candidate, not 
necessarily the time that he begins to write. 

5. Record the time when the candidate gives to the examiner 
the finished typewritten copy. 

6. Record on the candidate's individual score card his name, and 
the total time in minutes. Ignore the fractional part of a minute. 

7. Determine the number of errors. An error is any error in a 
word or the space or punctuation immediately following a word. A 
word which has several errors is counted as one error. Record the 
number of errors on the score card. 

COPY 

The truck company is normally organized into three sections of 
nine trucks, each section under command of an assistant truckmaster. 



320 TRADE TESTS 

The service trucks not forming an integral part of the cargo sec- 
tions are usually kept under the immediate orders of the truckmaster. 
When the company is not operating as a train, or when gasoline- 
supply trucks are not needed, these trucks may be assigned to cargo 
work, and in such case should be attached to sections. 

The administration of a truck company is identical vriih that of a 
company, troop, or batter}-. The company commander is responsi- 
ble for the operation, supply, and discipline of his command. He is 
assisted by the truckmaster, whose duties are analogous to those of 
a first sergeant. The truckmaster is the executive, and sees that all 
orders or instructions are properly carried out. 

Each assistant truckmaster is responsible for the discipline of the 
men of his section, and for the proper operation and up-keep of the 
equipment assigned thereto. .\11 orders or instructions to various 
members of a section should be given to the assistant truckmaster 
in charge thereof and he should be held rigidly accountable for the 
condition and operation of his section. 

The assistant mechanics are under the supervision of the me- 
chanic, who should be under the immediate supen-dsion of the truck- 
master. They perform such mechanical work as the company com- 
mander may direct. 

The mess sergeant has general charge of the mess, and the cooks 
are under his superv-ision. He has control of all materials and sup- 
phes for the company, and is accountable for their proper issue and 
use. He is assisted in care and issues of property by one of the assist- 
ant chauffeurs, usually by assis ant chauffeur of the Hght repair 
truck or cargo truck clerk, etc. The company clerk keeps all records 
of personnel, property and operation, and performs such other duties 
as the company commander may require. 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

I. Multiply the number of minutes by ten. Ignore the fractional 
part of a minute. 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 321 

2. Add the number of errors. 

3. This sum is the candidate's score. Rate the candidate accord- 
ing to the following table: 

Expert: o to 85 inclusive with not more than five errors 

Journeyman: o to 86 inclusive with more than five errors. 
Apprentice: 87 to 150 inclusive. 
Novice: 151 and above. 



322 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 
STENOGRAPHER AND TYPIST. — Stenographer 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 
Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE EXAMINER 

1. Make sure that the typewriter is in good condition. The nec- 
essary supplies are typewriter paper Sjx ii, a stenographer's note- 
book, and pencil. 

2. Say to the candidate: "Be seated at this table." Give him 
the notebook and pencil. 

3. Give the candidate the loose sheet of copy and say, "Copy 
this in shorthand as rapidly as you can without making mistakes." 

4. Record the starting time in minutes and seconds. This rep- 
resents the time at which the copy is handed to the candidate, not 
necessarily the time that he begins to write. 

5. Record the time when the candidate gives to the examiner the 
finished notes and the sheet of test copy. 

6. Record on the individual score card the candidate's name, and 
the total time. Ignore the fractional part of a minute. 

7. Say to the candidate: "Be seated at this typewriter. Insert 
paper and adjust the typewriter for single space." 

8. When these instructions have been complied with, give to 
the candidate his stenographic notes and say: "Copy this as rapidly 
as possible, making no erasures, and as few mistakes as possible; 
and report to me as soon as you are through." 

9. Record the starting time in minutes and seconds. 

10. Record the time when the candidate gives to the examiner 
the finished typewritten copy. 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 323 

11. Record on the candidate's score card the total time of tran- 
scribing in minutes. Ignore the fractional part of a minute. 

12. Determine the number of errors. An error is any error in a 
word, or the space or punctuation immediately following a word. A 
word which has several errors is counted as one error. Record the 
number of errors on the score card, 

COPY 

This is the kind of ambition which creates things and which pushes 
the world along; an ambition to do or to be, to produce or to master 
something, and which never for an instant loses sight of the point 
first aimed at unless it be to aim at some point which is still higher 
and still harder to hit. That sort of ambition consists of only two 
elements, work and purpose; all men have had it who have striven 
with a definite end in view, even though some of them might not be 
willing to call it by that name. The dictionary gives several mean- 
ings of the word, but it matters very httle which you accept, for the 
end is always the same; if you work with a desire to make a name for 
yourself, or if you try to establish an idea which you know to be 
right, you follow the same lines, and the method you adopt has for 
its basis ambition; there is no other word which can take its place 
and no other which has even a similar meaning. 

Ambition may be counted as one of the best quahties of the 
human race; to be sure it has led to evil a great many times, or to 
what has seemed at first to be such, but I doubt if there has ever been 
a case. where a great ambition did not in the end result in great good 
to all mankind. Napoleon has been called the most ambitious man 
that ever Uved and crimes without number have been laid at the door 
of that ambition, all of which may be true, but today the world is 
better in many ways because he Hved in it and because he was ambi- 
tious. An ambition to make money, to have a large pay envelope, has 
been sneered at as unworthy the thought of any young person; that 
is entirely wrong, for say what you will there are a thousand and 
one things that make for the best good of everybody which can only 
be had through the medium of hard cash; we should dress well and 
read good books ; we should surround ourselves with a certain amount 
of what have been termed luxuries but which are fast becoming neces- 



3-24 TRADE TESTS 

sities: all these tilings cost money and to get money we must earn it; 
therefore the ambition for a large pay envelope is simply an ambition 
for better conditions in Hie, than which there can be no more worthy 
ambition. 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 

1. Add the two time scores, ^vluldply the sum by ten. This is 
the candidate's time score. 

2. Add to the time score the number of errors. This sum is the 
candidate's hnal score. 

3. Rate the candidate according to the following table: 

Expert: Score o to 225 inclusive with less than 1,3 errors. 

Joiime}Tnan: Score o to 225 inclusive \\ith more than 12 errors 
and less than 26 errors 

or, score 226 to 300 inclusive with less than 26 errors. 

Apprentice: Score o to 300 inclusive wixh more than 2^ errors 

or. score 301 to 500. 

No\ice: Score 501 or more. 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 



325 



TRADE TEST 
CHAUFFEUR. — Truck Driver 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL 
IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 




TEST EQUIPMENT 
Equipment : 

I. Area. The course for the truck driver's trade test requires: 

a. A plot of fairly level ground 330 ft. long and 125 ft. wide. 

b. A hill grade between i| and 2J inches to the foot, with 
a surface not less than 50 ft. long (with grade) and 36 ft. 
wide. 



326 



TRADE TESTS 



2. US. Army truck, Type B, specifications for which are as 
follows: 

a. Left hand drive. 

b. Steering radius, 28 ft. 3 in. 

c. Tread: front, 64 in.; rear, 64J in. 

d. Wheel base, 160 J in. 

e. Overall length of body: 152I in. 

f. Overall width of body: 86i in. 

g. Sun hood over driver's seat. 



rite 





A PERFORMANCE TEST 327 

3. Course construction. (See Plate 23-t) 

a. All parts of the course between posts i and 6 inclusive 
will be located according to the accompanying blue- 
print dimensions. The hill may be placed where prac- 
tical for the topography of the space available and con- 
sistent with giving the different parts of the test specified. 

b. The entire course will be covered with 2 to 4 inches of 
cinders. (Finely crushed stone may be substituted.) 

c. The ''S" road will be marked off by white stakes, 5 ft. 
apart, ij inches (approximately) in diameter or diagonal 
and 4 ft. 6 in. or higher above the ground. These stakes 
will be driven into the ground so that they will fall down 
readily when hit by the truck. 

d. Numbered posts will carry white signs with appropriate 
numbers in black. Signs will be 8 x 10 inches (approxi- 
mately). The bottom of the sign will be 4 ft. 6 inches 
(approximately) from the ground. 

e. Posts 5 and 6 consist of 1x12 inch boards supported by 
2x4 inch posts or larger. The bottom of the board will 
be 4i ft. from the ground. The boards should be attached 
loosely (screw eye and nail) so that they can readily be 
knocked off. 

f. Bhnd street will have curb of white board. For dimen- 
sions and construction see Plate 23-t. The curb will be 
attached loosely (screw eye and nail) so that it can be 
readily knocked down. 

g. A post will be driven 10 feet from post No. 8 (as shown 
on Plate 23-t) flush with the ground, to guide examiner 
in scoring error No. 27. 

Materials : 

5 Posts 2x4 inches (or larger) x 6 ft. (For sign posts i, 2, 3, 

4,8.) 
4 Posts 2x4 inches (or larger) x 6 ft. 6 in. (For posts 5 and 6.) 
15 Posts 2x4 inches (or larger) x 18 in. (For white board curb.) 
I Post 2x4 inches (or larger) x 30 in. (For post 7.) 
8 Boards i x 8 x 10 inches. (For numbered signs.) 
3 Boards f x 4 inches x 1 2 feet. (For curbing blind alley.) 



TRADE TESTS 

lo Boards f x 4 inches x 10 feet. (For curbing blind alley.) 
I Board 1x12 inches x 11 feet. (For post 6.) 
I Board 1x12 inches x 5 feet. (For post 5.) 
95 Stakes ij x i§ in. x 5 feet. 

The thickness of these boards may approximate the dimen- 
sions given. 
Whitewash. 
Black paint. 
Whitewash brush. 
Small brush for sign painting. 



Tools : 



Hammers. 

Cross cut saw. 

Rip saw. 

Axe. 

Shovels. 

Mallet — 10 lb. wood. 

Nails. 

Measuring tape. 

These tools are used in the construction and maintenance of 

the course. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO THE EXAMINER 

1. Give this test only with a U.S. Army Truck, Type B, of above 
specifications. 

2. Make certain that the truck is in good running order before the 
test begins. Care will be taken to have the accelerator working 
properly. Guard against scoring the candidate for racing the en- 
gine when the accelerator is at fault. 

3. Empty the truck; let down the tail board; roll up back and side 
curtains of sunhood. 

4. Have each candidate begin the test at post No. i. The truck will 
be at the right side of post No. i, with engine running ready for 
the candidate to drive. 

5. Permit only one candidate at a time to ride on the truck. 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 329 

If a candi'date quits the test at any part of the course bring the 
truck to post No. i. Under no circumstances will a candidate be 
permitted to get on the truck at any part of the course other than 
at post No. I. 
Stop the test if the candidate is obviously incompetent. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CANDIDATE 

1. When the candidate is in the driver's seat ready for the test at 
post No. I, say: 

a. "Do you know this gear shift?" 

b. "Shift to first. Shift to second. Shift to third. Reverse." 
Have the candidate shift to each speed as you instruct him. 

c. "Which is the spark? Which is the gas?" Have the can- 
didate operate each of these levers. 

d. "Do you know how to work that accelerator?" Have the 
candidate use the accelerator. 

2. The examiner or an expert truck driver acting as assistant will 

occupy the seat to the right of the candidate and give him 
all instruction necessary concerning gear shift, ignition, 
throttle and acceleration. In no case will this expert or 
examiner give instruction after preliminary practice. 

3. During the preliminary practice do not shift gears or regulate 
spark or throttle for the candidate. Force the candidate to learn 
how to handle the truck here by having him do all the necessary 
operations. 

4. At the posts listed under INSTRUCTIONS AND BASIS FOR 
SCORING, give the candidate the instructions indicated. 

5. Repeat if necessary any or all of the prescribed instructions. Do 
not change them in any way. 

6. If a candidate asks a question involving a choice between driving 
one way or another, say: "Do what you think best." 

7. Point out to the candidate the posts or parts of road referred to 
in the instructions. 

8. When the candidate has driven from post No. 8 to post No. i, 
permit the engine to run, so that the succeeding candidate may 
start driving. 



330 TRADE TESTS 

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE SCORER * 

1. The candidate's score is the number of errors he makes. Each 
kind of error is tabulated in the BASIS FOR SCORING. 

2. Before attempting to score any part of the performance, read 
through carefully the entire BASIS FOR SCORING. 

3. Score each error singly and at the time of performance. 

4. Score each error strictly in accordance with the printed Errors. 

5. Be careful to put the score in the appropriate space on C.C.P. 
577. Guard against putting the score for error Xo. 12 in space 
Xo. 13. 

6. If an error is made Score i 

If an error is not made Score o 

7. K, because of demonstrated inabihty the candidate has not been 
permitted to complete the test, score each subsequent Scoring 
Unit as an error. 

8. If a candidate makes error 11 he also makes errors 12 and 13. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RATER 

1. Rate a candidate's proficiency as truck driver according to the 
follo\\ing standards: 

Errors Rate 

3 or less E 

4 to 9 inclusive J 

10 to 15 inclusive A 

16 or more X 

2. An expert (E) is capable of handling a truck \^4th great efficiency 
and skill. 

A joume\Tnan (J) is an acceptable driver competent for ordinar}* 
dnvmg. 

An. apprentice (A) should not be trusted ^^ith a truck until given 
further instructions. 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 



331 



Post 



INSTRUCTIONS AND BASIS FOR SCORING 
Instructions Scoring Unit (Errors) 



No. I. "The first part of this is pre- 
liminary practice and does 
not count. Drive to the 
right side of post 2, over to 
post 3 and then back up again 
to post 2." 



No scoring. 



No. 2. "Now back up to the right 
side of post 2." 



No scoring. 



No. 3. "Drive to the right side of 
post 4 and then through that 
* S ' shaped road without 
touching any stakes. Drive 
at the speed you think best." 



From Post 2 to Post 4. 
Races engine when starting or 
shifting. 

Abrupt start — truck jumps, 
acceleration uneven. 
First speed from post 2 to 4. 
Grinds gears in shifting. 



No. 4. At the exit of the "S" shaped 
road, say: "Drive your hood 
up into the center of No. 5." 



From Post 4 to Post 5. 

5. Knocks down stake in first half 
circle. 

6. Knocks down stake in second 
half circle. 

7. Jerky driving. 

8. Stops truck. 

9. Hits any part of No. 5. 



No. 5. As soon as the candidate has 
driven up to the board, say: 

"Back through that curved 
road without knocking down 
any stakes." 

If the candidate knocks 
down four stakes in the first 
quarter of the circle, say: 

"Drive out and drive into 
the other end." 

( Indicate clearly that he is to 
drive front end in — into the 
other end of this third half 
circle.) 



15- 
16. 

17- 



From Post 5 to Post 6. 
More than one direct backing 
to enter third half circle. 
Knocks down more than one 
stake. 

Stops truck or drives forward 
more than once. 
Jerky driving. 

More than one backing to reach 
platform No. 6. 
Hits platform. 

Truck not square with platform. 
Sides of truck off to one side 
of posts. 



332 



TRADE TESTS 



Have the truck driven in- 
side the stake at "A,"' i.e., in 
that position where it would 
have been had the candidate 
backed through successfully. 
At the exit from this road, 
say: 

"Back up to platform Xo. 
6 as if you were going to load 
your truck." 



Xo. 6. 



''Turn to the right without 




hitting those stakes." 


18. 


When the candidate passes 


19. 


stake "A," say 


20. 


'■ Drive up to post Xo. 7 and 


21. 


stop with your step next to the 




post." 


22. 



From Post 6 to Post 7 
Hits stake at "A." 
Takes one backing to clear "A." 
First speed from post 6 to 7. 
Stops wdth front step directly in 
front of post 7. 

Truck rolls down hill more than 
one foot. 



Xo. 7. ''Drive to end of street 
marked by post Xo. 8 and 
turn around. Do not back 
any more than necessary." 
When candidate has turned 
around, sa}^: " Drive down to 
the right side of post Xo. i." 



From Post 7 to Post i. 
Truck rolls down hill more than 
one foot when starting. 
Emergency brake on when driving 
up hill. 
Jerky driving. 

More than one backing in turn. 
Turns further than 10 feet from 
post 8. 

Wheels touch curb. 
Races engine or grinds gears on 
turn. 

Turns steering wheel more than 
^ turn when truck is stationar}-. 
Note : Add i error each time the 
candidate stalls the engine, at 
any part of the course after pre- 
liminary practice. 



23- 



24- 



-0- 
26. 



30 



The Place of the Perforaiaxce Test 

The main criticism of the performance test method as used 
in the army concerns itself with the difficulty of securing a 



A PERFORMANCE TEST 333 

single task which is sufficiently typical to be taken as indicative 
of general trade ability. The restrictions of time imposed by 
army conditions prevented the examination from covering a 
large number of trade operations. There is, however, no reason 
why the tests when applied in industry could not be much more 
lengthy than those used in the army. A day, or even two days, 
spent in systematic examination of the abilities of a skilled 
tradesman would be well spent. The general method of assign- 
ing standardized, typical jobs of various degrees of difficulty 
is infinitely superior to the haphazard methods which are now 
commonly used. 

There is little doubt, however, that for rapid examination 
by unskilled examiners,* the oral or picture method, except for 
a few special occupations, is the more advantageous, as the 
initial selecting agency. Where further information is required, 
which the oral test does not furnish, the performance test may 
well be employed. It is also an indispensable instrument, (i) 
where there is great language difficulty; (2) where there is fear 
that previous coaching has taken place; (3) where the oral 
method has been rendered void because the trade information 
has been obtained in a purely theoretical way. In both the 
oral and picture methods it cannot be too clearly realized that 
manual skill is only indirectly measured; the success of the 
rating depends on the close correlation between degree of 
information and amount of skill. In the performance test no 
such assumption is made. The latter form of test, if of a wide 
enough order, measures both elements of trade ability, namely, 
technical information and manual dexterity. The performance 
test is merely a more refined and inclusive measuring device. 
It is impossible, without considering the reasons for an exami- 

*The examiners for performance tests underwent specific training for their 
work. 



8S4 TRADE TESTS 

nation, that is. without a consideration of the importance of 
the decision to be made as a result of the test, to weigh the 
respective merits of the oral and perfonnance method. Where. 
however, a thorough knowledge is required, not only of the 
strong points of the workman, but also of his weaknesses in 
the trade, a series of periormance tests has undoubtedly a 
great neld of usefulness, in spite of the fact that they are more 
difficult to construct and more expensive to administer. Some 
of the ways in which the periormance test method can be used. 
not primarily for selecting, but rather for training workmen. 
will be discussed in a later chapter. 



SECTION V 
A WRITTEN GROUP TRADE TEST 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE WRITTEN GROUP TRADE TEST METHOD 

The Army Trade Test Division was, on a priori grounds, 
extremely skeptical of written trade examinations. For this 
reason, in the theoretical examination, oral tests alone were 
used. Such tests demand an individual examination; an ex- 
aminer must give the whole of his attention to a single man 
throughout the entire test. When there is no pressure of time, 
such a procedure is advantageous, but when time is limited, 
there are many advantages in being able to give group exami- 
nations. Among these advantages are: (i) conservation of 
examiner's time; (2) reduction of scoring time and increase of 
scoring accuracy through the use of stencils, etc.; (3) elimina- 
tion of subjective judgments; (4) the possibility of rapidly 
eliminating the trade "bluffer," leaving only those who show 
evidence of some knowledge for further consideration or ex- 
amination by means of oral, performance, or picture tests. 

In connection with the work of this division, it was possible 
before the signing of the armistice to experiment with a group 
examination in only one trade. It is, therefore, premature to 
make any estimate of the group test, but there is little doubt 
that great possibilities lie ahead of the general method. The 
examination was constructed on the well-known multiple-choice 
plan, i.e., to each question asked four answers are appended, 
and the examinee is instructed to underline the correct 
answer. 

337 



338 TRADE TESTS 

Assembly of Questions 

In conference with expert tradesmen, sixty-two questions 
were prepared, each question having four possible answers, of 
which one was correct. Nearly all the questions of the army 
oral test for bricklayers were adapted to this form of exami- 
nation, the remainder being secured from other sources. Trade 
terms were used almost exclusively in the four answers from 
which the choice was to be made, on the supposition that a 
person might be able to recognize a trade term from among a 
number of terms not applicable to the trade and yet have no 
real knowledge of its significance. A part of this test is here 
reproduced by the courtesy of the Editor of the Journal of 
Applied Psychology, from an article written by one of the 
authors with Mr. H. A. Toops. 

BRICKLAYERS' TEST ^ 

Directions : 

In the sentences below, there are four choices for a correct sen- 
tence. Only one of the four choices is correct. Draw a line under 
the one choice which makes the best sentence. If you are not 
sure, guess; an omitted answer will count as a wrong answer in 
determining your score. The first two sentences, A and B, are 
answered correctly as a sample for you. Read them carefully; 
then go on to question i, question 2, and so on to the end of the 
list. 
Samples : 

A. A half of a brick is called a: chunk, block, heel, bat . 

B. Fire-bricks are laid in: concrete, cement, fire-clay, mortar. 
Questions ; 

1. The top course of stone on a wall is called: coping, bond-stone, 
clip-course, capstone. 

2. A brick set on end is called: upright, soldier, rowlock, stud. 

1 These eighteen questions are samples of the original set of sixty-two 
which constituted the examination. 



WRITTEN GROUP TRADE TEST 339 

3. Before plumbing up a corner, you should lay: 3-courses, 6- 
courses, 9-courses, 12-courses. 

4. A brick that is set on the narrow edge is called: stretcher, oar- 
lock, rowlock, header. 

5. In coming to a height, if there is a course of brick difference in 
the level, you would call it a: haunch, filler, line-level, hog. 

6. Filling-in the space between a front and back course of brick 
is called: slushing-up, tempering, tuck-pointing, plastering. 

7. Bricks laid across the wall reaching to the face are called: 
stretchers, headers, layers, fillers. 

8. A fire stop around a flue is formed by a coping, skew-back, 
corbie, indent. 

9. If you have no metal ties, in plain bond work, the front work 
of a building is tied-in with: king-course, clip-course, projec- 
tion course, belt. 

10. In backing a 4-inch ashlar stone wall, you would tie it with: 
tie-joint, binder, brace, anchor. 

11. A brick cut in half lengthwise is called: filler, soap, bat, chunk. 

12. To keep the line level in the middle of a long wall you use: 
level, plumb-line, square, trigger. 

13. In cutting a brick you would use a: chisel-bar, striker, brick-set, 
cutter. 

14. The distance above the frame for a hntel should be: J inch, 
f inch, I inch, ij inches. a 

15. An ordinary stone sill should be bedded on the: front, back, 
sohd, two ends. 

16. To locate a building you use: water-level, sighter, transit, 
line-level. 

17. A skutch is used in cutting: cement, glazed-brick, stone, fire- 
brick. 

18. Another name for a blind header course is: belt-course, clip- 
course, dental-course, hidden-course. 

The answers to the above questions with the percentages of experts 
passing each are as follows: 

1. Coping — 98%. 4. Rowlock — 100%. 

2. Soldier — 98%. 5. Hog — 100%. 

3. 3-courses — 88%. 6. Slushing-up — 98%. 



340 TRADE TESTS 



/ • 


Headers— 98%. 


13- 


Brick-set — 100 fc- 


s. 


Corbie — 85 ^c. 


14. 


J-incli — SS ^c. 


9- 


Clip-course — 100 %. 


15. 


Two-ends — 93 %. 


10. 


.\nchor — 85 ^c 


16. 


Transit — SS %. 


II. 


Soap — S5 Tc- 


17. 


Fire-brick — ioo<^^c. 


12. 


Trigger — 93 %. 


18. 


Clip-course — 93 %. 



The Subjects of the Experiment 

The examination was given without time limit to 10 1 persons, 
distributed as follows: ^s no\'ices without trade experience, 
4 apprentices, and 62 trade imion members. Of the no\'ices, 
29 were soldiers in an army training school, being instructed in 
other trades at the time, but inexperienced in the bricklayers' 
trade. These men were mechanically inclined, and above 
average in intelligence and education. It is ob\'ious, therefore, 
that the questions were subjected to much more inteUigent 
guessing than ordinarv- conditions of their appKcation would 
furnish. Of the other six noWces, 3 were stenographers who 
had had several days' experience, immediately preceding this 
test, in taking and transcribing stenographic notes relating to 
the general subject of bricklaying. The other 3 noAdces were 
clerical workers. These subjects wxre well informed concern- 
ing the technique employed in assembling such tests, and used 
various methods of ''suggestion, inspection, and elimination'' 
in efforts to make as high scores as possible. 

Owing to the great scarcity of apprentices, only four could 
be examined. The length of their trade experience ranged from 
one month to five years. In \iew of experience and perform- 
ance in the army oral test, the lowest apprentice can be con- 
sidered Httle better than no^dce, while the best apprentice 
perhaps deser^'es to be ranked as a low journe\inan. 

The tradesmen, being all members of the union, more than 



WRITTEN GROUP TRADE TEST 341 

fulfilled the minimum entrance requirements in point of years 
of trade experience and skill. On the basis of their own written 
statements in regard to years of trade experience, type of work, 
and foremanship ability, these 62 men were divided by the 
authors into the two following groups: (a) 36 journeymen 
(hereafter called J.) or men of medium amount of skill and 
knowledge; (b) 26 experts (hereafter called E.), men of superior 
skill, knowledge and foremanship ability. This rather arbitrary 
classification was made in an effort to determine from the re- 
sults of the examination whether a set of questions could be so 
selected as to differentiate not only nontradesmen from trades- 
men, and apprentices from skilled men, but also journeymen 
from journeymen experts, so divided. 

Presentation of Results 

Four points were allowed for each correct answer; there were 
no partial credits. Four points were selected as an arbitrary 
value because of army custom. A graph for each question was 
drawn, showing the average score made by novices, apprentices, 
journeymen and experts. Samples of such graphs are shown 
in Fig. I. Since little was known as to the most desirable com- 
bination of questions to make up the best set for an examina- 
tion, five methods of combining varying numbers of questions 
were tried; only one of these methods is here described, that 
in which the entire set of 62 questions is used. 

The distribution of scores is given in the Graph. By inspec- 
tion, arbitrary lines of demarcation of N-A, and A-J may be 
made, corresponding to the number of questions correct as 
follows: 

Novice score, 0-30 

Apprentice score, 31-42 

Skilled tradesmen, 43-62 



34^2 



TRADE TESTS 




/- 



5 traigh f I me - Ic/eal. 



iOO 

I 

7S 

I 

25 

c 



iV" A Staffs. J E 

F/g.l. Some Groph% cf Questions. 



10 ZS 50 3S 



^■, f^ 



-^ 



SS 60 



^ Each u -1 person. , 
\ ±.A ''irty Nonces- 2.5 



m 



TTTTin 



;5 MWcmcf) Novica- 6 
^ ^Apprenf/ccs- ^ . 
-k ^Jour^e//ven-36< 

^ ' Jaio/- lol 






jj % 



SCOnB. 



n 



10 



40 60 6C 

//oy/ces. 



100 ISO J40 160 180 zoo ZIO !t40 
Apprentices. SHI Ilea Tradesmen. 



t 



Graph I. Disfr/but/on of Scores, by Track. Classes. Mefhoc/X. 



WRITTEN GROUP TRADE TEST 343 

It can be seen at once that the test does not differentiate be- 
tween the journeyman and expert classes. Either the division 
into these two classes by judgments based on the written state- 
ments of the men has nothing to do with men's ability to answer 
this form of question, or the test as given is not sufficiently diffi- 
cult to differentiate among skilled tradesmen. The homogeneity 
of the skilled tradesmen class as to scores can be easily seen 
from the Graph, where the expert distribution has been added 
to the journeyman distribution by means of the dotted squares. 

With the two arbitrary critical lines just mentioned, only 
three skilled union men out of 62, or less than 5 per cent, are 
displaced out of this larger class into the apprentice class. We 
can assume that all union men have had four years' trade experi- 
ence and possess a certain minimum requirement of ability. 
The apprentice with only one month's experience is here rated 
with the novices, as is only fair under the conditions. His 
guessing ability is as poor as the poorest novice, from which 
we can assume that he has learned next to no trade terms in 
one month of trade experience. Our own judgment is to the 
effect that intelligence is a better single measure of trade skill 
than are years of trade experience, after a certain minimum 
time for learning has elapsed. 

By chance alone, the poorest novice should theoretically be 
able to answer 15 of the 62 questions correctly (one out of every 
four). Here, only two novices fail to come up to this standard, 
and they fail by only a single question each, both answering 
14 questions correctly. The average novice answers a little 
better than 19 questions. 

If the object is merely to separate skilled tradesmen from 
the apprentices, or the tradesmen of experience from the "trade 
bluffers," this type of examination offers great promise, but 
much more work will have to be done to decide whether it has a 
place in the employment machinery. 



SECTION VI 

THE PLACE OF THE TRADE TEST IN 
INDUSTRY 



CHAPTER IX 

THE ANALOGY BETWEEN THE ARMY AND 
THE INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT PROBLEM 

The Location of the Trade Test in the Mechanism 
OF Placement in the Army 

The trade test methods which have been described were 
devised to meet the requirements of the army problem. The 
trade tests themselves were constructed to fit into a personnel 
system peculiar to the army. Nothing is more certain than the 
fact that the tests and methods will have to be modified to meet 
the varying conditions under which they will be employed in 
industry. To apply the army tests directly in industry would 
be to court disaster; unless it happens that the industrial situa- 
tion presents the same type of problem as that which was faced 
in the army. The experimental work undertaken by the Com- 
mittee on Classification of Personnel is much more valuable on 
account of the general methods, the validity of which it has 
established, than on account of any specific instruments of 
measurement which it has actually evolved. As the work pro- 
gressed from month to month, the general theory and nature 
of the examination became more clearly formulated, but in only 
a few cases was it possible to return to the tests which had 
already been constructed in order to modify them to meet in 
a more satisfactory manner the principles which had been 
evolved. 

The improvement in the form of oral examination employed 

347 



348 TRADE TESTS 

is well illustrated by the development of the general carpenter 
interview as it passed from its first form in the ''Aids to In- 
terviewers'' to the trade test form in September, 1918. Both 
these tests are here reproduced as an illustration of progress. 



STANDARD 



CARPENTER 

; GENERAL 
Page 1 



1: A 



2: A 



3: A 



Q. (a) State names of planes commonly used and (b) purpose of 
each. 



\. (a) (i) Jack, (2) fore, (3) smoothing. (4) block, (b) (i) The jack 
plane is for removing surplus wood and (2) to prepare material 
for the fore and smoothing planes, (c) (i) The fore plane to 
"joint up" the material, (2) to straighten edges of material 
so as to obtain a perfectly tight joint, (3) to take material 
"out of wind." (d) (i) Smoothing plane is chiefly used for 
finishing, (2) to give material a smooth surface, (3) and pre- 
pare it for paint or varnish, (e) (i) Block plane is used for 
small work and (2) for end planing. 



Q. What other ordinary tools does a carpenter need in addition to 
saws and planes? 



A. (i) Hammer, (2) screw driver. (3) chisel, (4) brace, (5) auger 
bits, (6) steel square/ (7) tri-square, (8) bevel, (9) marking 
gauge, (10) compass, (it) oil stone, (12) oU can. 



Q. What is meant by taking a piece of lumber " out of wind " ? 



.\. (i) Making the surface a true plane, or (2) a straight line. 



1:J 



Q. What is a square mitre joint? 



(i) Joining two pieces together, (2) first cutting each piece on 
an angle of forty-five degrees, (3) when joined together the 
two pieces form an angle of ninety degrees. 



Q. (a) Which edge should be used for the ton in setting a floor joist? 
(b) Why? 



2:J 



A. (a) The crown, (b) Because the joist has a tendency to sag from 
its own weight — and should have a little crown to overcome 
this and the" added weight of the floor. 



ARMY AND INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM 349 



STANDARD 



CARPENTER 

(GENERAL) 
Page 1 



3:J 



Q. (a) What is a good height for a step riser and (b) width for the 
tread? 



A., (a) Six inches, (b) Twelve inches. 



4:J 



Q. What is the usual size of a " two by four " after it has been 
" dressed and jointed" ? 



A One and three-quarter inches by three and three-quarter inches. 



Q. What is meant by quarter-sawed lumber? 



1:JE 



A. (i) The original log is first cut into quarters and (2) each quarter 
into slabs, (3) the saw out radiating from the center of the log 
on each cut, or (4) at right angles to the medullary rays. 



Q. How many shingles will be required to cover one hundred square 
feet, if laid four inches to the weather? 



2: JE 



A.. Four inches by four inches equal sixteen square inches, or one- 
ninth of a square foot, which each shingle will cover to the 
weather, therefore: (i) one square foot will require nine 
shingles. (2) One hundred square feet will require nine hun- 
dred shingles. 



Q. Give the names of the various parts of frame of a simple frame 
house. 



3: JE 



\. (i) Sill, (2) plate, (3) corner posts, (4) studding, (5) floor 
beams, (6) ribbon strip, (7) girth, (8) tie beams, (9) rafter, 
(10) collar beams. 



Q. (a) Is it necessary to know the location of door hardware in setting 
door? (b) Why? 



4: JE 



5: JE 



\. (a) Yes. (b) To block solidly back of butts and lock strike. 



Q. How many lineal feet of joists of ordinary dimensions can two 
men place on the different floors in a five-story brick building, 
including anchoring and leveling, in eight hours? 



A. (i) First, second and third floors, four hundred feet, (2) fourth 
floor, three hundred and fifty feet, (3) fifth floor, two hundred 
and seventy-five feet. 



3o0 TRADE TESTS 

TRADE TEST 
CARPENTER. — General 

ORAL 

CO^nilTTEE OX CLASSIEICATIOX OF PERSONNEL 

IN THE ARMY 

Trade Test Division 

Reproduced by permission of the Adjutant General 

QUESTION 1 
Q. What are the timbers called on which the flooring rests in a frame 

building? 
A. Joists vbeamsj. Score 4 

QUESTION 2 

Q. What do you do to a nail after it has been driven on varnished 

work? 
A. Set. Score 4 

QUESTION 3 

Q. What is the part of the window frame called which projects be- 
yond the wall at the bottom? 
A. Sill. Score 4 

QUESTION 4 

Q. What do you call the cross bracing which is put between .floor 

beams? 
A. Bridging. Score 4 

QUESTION 5 
Q. What plane do you use to plane the end of a small board across 

the grain? 
A. Block ^butt). ■ Score 4 

QUESTION 6 

Q. What do you caU the timber which goes on top of the studding? 
A. Plate. Score 4 

QUESTION 7 

Q. What does the number of a saw near the handle mean? 

A. Number of teeth to the inch. Score 4 



ARMY AND INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM 351 

QUESTION 8 

Q. What figures on the square would you use to make a square-miter 

joint? 
A. Equal figures. Score 4 

Note: Any two specific equal figures such 6-6, 9-9, 10-10, 12-12 
accepted. 

QUESTION 9 

Q. How are the ends of the floor joists cut on a brick building? 

A. (i) Beveled (angled) (diagonally) (mitered). Score 4 

(2) Fire cut. ' Score 4 

QUESTION 10 

Q. What is the name of the largest plane commonly used? 

A. Joint (joiner) (jointer) (fore). Score 4 

QUESTION 11 

Q. What method of nailing is used in putting down a hard- wood 

floor? 
A. Toe (tongue) (blind) (secret). Score 4 

QUESTION 12 

Q. What are two ways of joining base boards in the corner of a 
room? 

A. Butt (square). 
Dado. 
Miter. 

Cope. Any two, Score 4 

QUESTION 13 

Q. What do you call a rafter which runs from an outside corner of 

the building to the ridge at an angle other than 90 degrees? 

A. Hip. Score 4 

QUESTION 14 

Q. What are two ways of cutting-in mold faced door stops? 
A. (i) a. Miter. Score 4 

b. Cope. 
Note: Both required. No partial credits. 



352 TRADE TESTS 

QUESTION 15 

Q. What do you call the end post used to support stair rails? 
A. Newel. Score 4 

QUESTION 16 

Q. What kind of hinges are used in hanging an inside door? 
A. Butt. Score 4 

QUESTION 17 

Q. What do you call planing off the comer of a heavy timber? 

A. Chamfer. Score 4 

QUESTION 18 

Q. What attachment is used to keep a bit from going beyond a given 

depth? 
A. Gauge (stop). Score 4 

QUESTION 19 

Q. What do you call the method of marking a board to fit into an 

irregular space? 
A. Scribe. ' Score 4 

QUESTION 20 

Q. What figures do you use on the square for laying out the top 
and bottom cuts on a hip rafter for a one-to-one or half pitch 
roof? 
A. 12 and 17. * Score 4 

RATING THE CANDIDATE 
Score Rating 

19 and below N 

20 and 21 A — 

22 to 50 inclusive A 

51 and 52 A + 

53 and 54 J - 

55 to 68 inclusive J 

69 and 70 J + 

71 and above E 

There is no E — or E + rating. 



ARMY AND INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM 353 

A comparison of the two will show, better than any words can 
describe, the evolution of the single-answer question and the 
approach to the ideal of objective rating. 

It is probably true to say that were the compilation of tests 
to be made afresh, starting with the knowledge that is now 
possessed, not a single test would remain in its present form, 
although in the later tests, the alteration would not be con- 
siderable. After the first few months of work little change was 
made in the general plan of construction, but technique in 
carrying out this plan improved greatly and was steadily ad- 
vancing when the work of compilation ceased with the signing 
of the armistice. 

To get a true perspective of the trade test instrument, it is 
necessary to consider the general scheme of which it furnished 
an essential part. While only the roughest outline can be given 
of the general army method, even this will be of great service 
as an introduction to the consideration of the industrial applica- 
tions of trade tests. It is obvious that any method of determin- 
ing trade qualifications is meaningless unless coincident with 
it there is adequate information concerning trade needs. Strictly 
speaking, before a trade test covering any particular occupation 
can be constructed, it is necessary to know in some considerable 
detail the precise duties and skill demanded by the occupation. 

One of the first personnel problems which had to be faced 
centered around the trade requirements of the army. To most 
of those who were unacquainted with modern methods of war- 
fare it was a source of perpetual wonder to learn how large a 
number of trades were required within the limits of the army 
proper. However remote might be the occupation, with a few 
exceptions, somewhere in the army was a place where, under 
certain conditions, that occupation might profitably be followed. 
Each platoon, company, regiment or other unit, whether infan- 



354 TRADE TESTS 

try, cavalry, engineers, medical, etc., made its own particular 
demands for skilled workmen. The determination of the exact 
nature of these demands led to the compilation of Tables of 
Occupational Needs of Personnel Specifications. These were 
prepared in order to provide a definite and organized method of 
placing the supply of specialists in organizations and to secure 
their equable distribution throughout the army. 

They served the double purpose of showing the organization 
commander how best to utilize the trade abihty at his disposal, 
and in addition guided him in the further selection of men. 
Below is given an illustration of such a table of organization of 
a Rifle Company (Infantry Regiment). 

It was while the Tables of Occupational Needs for an Infantry 
Division were being revised that the fact was driven home with 
so much emphasis it could no longer be neglected that men could 
not be classified by occupations alone; and that by the very 
nature of these tables, which specified an occupationahst for a 
duty which had at best only a few essentials of a vocation in it, 
the tables were becoming too rich in occupational specialists. 
In consequence the necessity arose for taking into consideration 
qualifications other than occupational in order properly to make 
the best utilization of the personnel coming into the Army. 
Work was then commenced upon real personnel specifications 
which would take into account other factors upon which a man's 
assignment should be based, such as his physical, educational, 
intellectual, and leadership qualifications. Furthermore, in 
order to keep the relation between the qualifications a man 
possesses and the duties he performs foremost in the minds of 
those who are makng the initial and subsequent assignments 
of men to Army units, the personnel specifications set forth in 
concise but comprehensive style the duties of each of the Army 
grades for which it describes the qualifications. 



ARMY AND INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM 355 



OCCUPATIONAL NEEDS 



RIFLE COMPANY 

Infantry Regiment 



Table of organization \ 


Table of corresponding civilian occupations 




Number 




Army title 


Journey- 


Appren- 


Occupation and symbol 




man 


tice 






(Green) 


(Orange) 




I ist Sergeant 








I Mess Sergeant 


I 




Caterer (40 ca) 


I Supply Sergeant 


T 




Merchant or Stock- 


12 Sergeants 






keeper (42 or 18 s) 


4 Asst. to Platoon Commander? 








4 Riflemen 








4 Automatic Riflemen 








33 Corporals 








I Company Clerk 


I 




Clerical Worker and 


8 Automatic Riflemen 






Typist (38 g and 39 t) 


8 Bombers 








8 Rifle Grenadiers 








8 Riflemen 








4 Cooks 


4 




Cooks; desirable to have 
one baker and one 
with experience as 
meat cutter (40 c, 40 b, 
and 41 b) 


4 Mechanics 


I 




Carpenter (8 g) 




I 


I 


Gunsmith (n g); or 
General Mechanic (6 mc) 






2 


All around mechanics 
(6mc) 


2 Buglers 




2 


Buglers (44 bu, or 44 b, 
cornetist) 


64 Privates, ist Class 








4 Agents and Signal- 








men 




2 


Telegraph Operators (31 t) 






2 


Telephone men (33 t) 


16 Automatic-Rifle 






Less essential group: 


Gunners 


I 


I 


Barber (45) 


128 Privates 




I 


Butcher (41 b) 


16 Runners 




2 


Carpenters (8 g) 




I 


I 


Clerical workers (38 g) 




I 


4 


Interpreters, French (52; 
I skilled for co. hqrs., 
and I partly skilled for 
each platoon) 




I 


I 


Tailors (48 b, t) 






2 


Typists (3Q t) 




12 


21 


33 Occupational specialists 
45 Others, leadership 
material 








172 Not specified 


2'^o Total enlisted 






250 Total enlisted 



356 TRADE TESTS 

\ ALUE OF Personnel Specifications 

The immediate value of persomiel specifications is four-fold: 
(i) The Army is given the benefit of civilian experience gained 
at the soldier's expense; (2) the need for Army schools to de- 
velop speciahsts out of raw material is rainirnized; (3) the 
training period of units is shortened inasmuch as only mili- 
tary instruction is necessary and not both military and occupa- 
tional instruction; and (4) the man is much more likely to be 
contented because of being continued at work he enjoys. 

The most important service which these personnel specifica- 
tions rendered was that it enabled a central planning board to 
determine how specialists should be used, and how the supply of 
skilled men should be husbanded, particularly in cases where 
the demand far exceeded the supply. The tables furnished the 
requisite information, not only of what trades were useful to 
the army, but just where and in what number tradesmen of 
varied degrees of ability could be used. 

As will be seen from the table on page 355 the occupational 
needs of each unit were expressed in the statement that a certain 
number of men in various occupations were required. These 
occupations were given the army title, wliich may. or may not. 
conform to that usually employed in civil life. It soon became 
apparent that there was urgent need for precise definition of the 
duties which the various t}'pes of army tradesmen were expected 
to fulfill. This need was met in a small degree by appending in- 
formation in the Tables of Occupational Needs, regarding the 
general duties of the various occupations, but the most \dtal 
step towards precision in the specification of personnel require- 
ments was taken when the volume of ''"Trade Specifications" 
was published, containing statements of the duties and specifica- 
tions in each of the 714 civiHan trades and occupations which 



ARMY AND INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM 357 



FAMEK 



T-fm 



B 

FORGIXG MACHINE OfKKATOH 



DUTIES 

1. Operation of standard types and various kinds and sizes of forginr 
chines, such as bulldozes and hydraulic presses on general work. 



QUALIFICATIONS ^ 

2. Should have thorough knowledge of rivet and bolt forging machines 
screw, toggle and hydraulic presses for heading staybolts, forms, and 
all classes of press forgings of various materials. 

Should have a practical knowledge of coal, gas, and oil types of forge 
furnace,, and the proper heating of various material for forgings. 

Must be able to set and adjust dies and maintain same and be able 
to turn but uniformly dimensioned product. . 



SUBSTITUTE OCCUPATIONS 

3. Drop forge operator, press operator, heavy forge blacksmith, blacksmith. 



55 



HADGA 



HEAT TRKATEU 



DUTIES 

1. Heat treatment in general of steel forgings. finished parts and castings. 



QUALiriCATIONS 

2. Must be thoroughly experienced In the heating and oil treatment of 
various grades of steel for anneating or toughening for any kind of 
work. Mu5t be capable of annealing, quenching and drawing of all 
kinds of steel forgings and castings, either rough or after being ma- 
chined. Must be capable of judging temperature by the eye, and fa- 
miliar with the use of pyrometers. 

Must thorouglily understand the construction aiid operation of standard 
types of coke, oil, gas or electric furnace equipment, and quenching 
tanks, and have a working knowledge of the metallurgy of steel, at 
least sufficient to know liow it should be heated, treated and cooled, 
under instruction or by test. 

Should have had similar experience In forge shop of any industrial 
plant. 



SUBSTirUlE OCCUPATIONS 

3. Annealer, heater, forge' heater. 



56 



HAEWS 



HORSESIIOER 



DUTIES' 

1. Shoeing horses and mnlet. 



QUALIFICATIONS 

2. Must be a practical horseshoer, capable of forging, shaping and punch- 
ing horse or mule shoes from standard stock or bar material. Capable of 
removing shoes, paring and dresLing hoofs, welding caulks, shaping sh,ocs 
for correction of diseased or malformed feet. 

Should have some veterinary knowledge, enabling him to care for and 
correct hoof troubles. 

Must be able to handle and shoe unbroken horses under rough field 
conditions, and handle heavy horses and mules* 

Should have some knowledge of blacksmithing and berable to make 
■welds and do light blacksmith work. 

Experienced as commercial horseshoer or as horseshoer In construction 
camp, cr employee of company having considerable stock. 



SUBSTITUTE OCCUPATIONS 

3. Farrier, country blacksmith, blacksmith. 



^35<^a8 



57 



the army utilized. Samples of these specifications are shown 
above. 

It was the introduction of these specifications that furnished 
a common language and a working basis of standard terminology. 



358 TRADE TESTS 

The Table of Occupational Needs and Personnel Specifica- 
tions, together with the Trade Specifications and Index of Occu- 
pations, furnished information concerning: 

(i) The trade needs in each branch of the army. 

(2) The actual duties involved in the various trades. 

This compilation of information corresponds to the process of 
job analysis in industry. 

The only other procedure of army placement which need be 
mentioned as essential to the understanding of the trade test 
movement is that involving the compilation of an occupational 
history of each recruit. While many other lines of achievement 
were of interest, the trade achievement is the only one of im- 
portance in the present discussion. 

Occupational History. The experience of the army has been 
that a very reliable statement of what the man has done in an 
occupational way can be obtained when he is properly inter- 
viewed. According to personnel procedure a complete record 
of just what he had done from the time he left school until he 
entered the Army was recorded first of all in the form of notes 
on a pad. After the interviewer was satisfied he had a complete 
statement, he determined what was the man's main civilian 
occupation and then filled in the space on the Qualification Card 
as to 

(i) Name of main occupation. 

(2) Details of just what he did at that job. 

(3) Years of experience. 

(4) The army symbol. For example, carpentry was sub- 
divided into 22 subdivisions, i.e., block maker, pulley, 8 bl; 
boat carpenter, 8b; bridge, timber carpenter, 8br; cabinet 
maker, 8cb; etc. 

(5) Interviewer's estimate of his skill at the trade, expressed 
as apprentice, journeyman, or expert. (Skill less than that of 



ARMY AND INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM 359 

an apprentice was ignored as not of sufficient value to warrant 
transferring a man on that basis.) 

(6) Firm ivorked for. 

(7) Department, shop or branch. 

(8) Kind of business (the industry; e.g., shipbuilding, tex- 
tile, etc.). 

(9) Address of firm. 

(10) Weekly wages. 

Items 1-5 and 10 were recorded similarly for the 2d best 
and 3d best occupations and occasionally the 4th best. 

The main object of that part of the qualification card shown 
on page 360 was to elicit all possible information concerning the 
trade ability of the recruit, with a view to filling the require- 
ments of the army as detailed in the Tables of Occupational 
Needs and the Trade Specifications. The qualification card 
was merely a means to an end — the correct placement and 
correct follow-up of the recruit. It will be noticed that item 
(5) in the list above calls for the interviewer's estimate of the 
trade skill of the recruit. This estimate must be expressed in 
terms of an apprentice, journeyman, or expert rating. Upon 
the accuracy of the estimate of this skill depended the success 
of the whole scheme of trade placement. It was at this point 
in the involved mechanism that the need for the trade test 
arose. The trade test is a device which serves as an accurate 
measuring instrument for determining the degree of trade skill 
with a view to the correct placement of this skill within an 
organization, the precise needs of which have been previously 
determined by exhaustive study and detailed analysis. Without 
some form of qualification card, which could guide the examiner 
and serve as a permanent record, without an accurate knowl- 
edge of the trade requirements of the army, it would have 
been impossible to derive the full benefit from the trade tests 



TRADE TESTS 



^5 = = ^ 



28 






7. _ 



^5 



^^ 



& :C 






= C- if ^ = 



:^^^^ — ■ 









: 5s 






. - ^ > 






^ ■ 



. < w y. - == ' 



-. - '-' o ---:/: C O 



13 = _- y 5 



^3 ^2^' : i^^ :-. 

3 i. -, „ ^ ^ ^ 1^ o J^:^ ^ £. - 1- ^ 







;.i >-3: =• c - 



cravo MOixvDMiivnO .s^aiaTOS i^o^'nuoj 






<-« 



c«o 



ARMY AND INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM 361 

themselves. Only as the trade test forms part of an organic unit 
can it be used to the best advantage. 

Analogy between the Army and the Industrial Problem 

The question of the extent to which the present measuring 
devices of the army can be applied directly to industry depends 
upon the extent to which the conditions of an industry coincide 
with those of the army. In a very real sense, the effective 
utilization of the available skilled personnel within the army 
was essentially a similar problem to that which is faced by the 
employment ofhce in large industrial plants. The army on a 
large scale, the employment manager of an industry on a smaller 
scale, must function to bring man and job together with due 
regard to the qualifications of the former and the demands of 
the latter. Trade tests in one form or another will accomplish 
this purpose, if they are made an integral part of the total 
mechanism of placement. Just as in the army it was necessary 
to know the number of men with various trade skills that were 
required, together with an exact knowledge of the duties within 
each of the trades, so it is necessary in the industry, before any 
system of trade testing is set up, to conduct a thorough survey 
of occupational needs and requirements. 

This introduces an idea which is rapidly gaining favor in 
industry. Adequate knowledge of the employment situation 
within a plant necessitates, at its inception, a complete analysis 
of the various occupations represented. Job analysis, or occupa- 
tional specification, is the forerunner of the construction of an 
accurate placement scheme. 

It is obviously a waste of time to attempt to analyze the 
human element when there has been no corresponding analysis 
of the jobs to which the human material is to be assigned. The 
analysis of the man and the analysis of the job are interwoven 



362 TRADE TESTS 

throughout the whole process of placement. One of the lines 
along which there is a possibility for a great saving of human 
material lies in the direction of much more detailed investigation 
of the various occupations within the confines of the industrial 
plant. 

If one considers the way in which the processes of industry 
have become more specialized during the past twenty -five years, 
how new trades have come into existence and older trades have 
been split into various minor trades, the necessity for this step 
becomes apparent. Thirty or forty years ago, trades and occu- 
pations were limited in number and fairly definite in content. 
A carpenter was a general carpenter, a machinist, a general 
machinst. A particular product passed through all its stages 
in the hands of one man; starting with the raw material it 
passed to the finished stage in the hands of a single tradesman. 
The procedure necessitated all round skill and knowledge on 
the part of each tradesman. To-day, under production methods, 
this same product may pass through the hands of ten or fifteen 
men, each one performing a single operation, and possibly being 
skilled in this operation alone. 

Again, the growth in the size of plants, in many cases, has 
made the old method of hiring through the shop foreman un- 
wieldy. It has become necessary to centralize the employment 
operations, with the result that a single office must hire men 
for all types of work within the plant. In this respect the con- 
ditions within the industry resemble the army situation. When 
it was possible for foremen to do the hiring, their first-hand 
knowledge of trade operations enabled them to give a very 
searching examination, covering the most involved operations 
of the trade. Even under these conditions there were, however, 
numerous disadvantages, of which the most important must be 
mentioned. In the first place the rating that was given was the 



ARMY AND INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM 363 

result of a general estimate made by a particular person. This 
resulted in an absolute lack of standardization of rating. A fore- 
man and an assistant foreman, interviewing the same applicant 
in the same shop, would give very different judgments with 
regard to abiUty. Even when the same judgment was arrived 
at, there were no objective terms in which it might be expressed. 
Foremen were influenced also by many extraneous elements, 
quite apart from the skill possessed by the applicant. In many 
cases the questions given or the jobs assigned were of a catch 
nature, calculated rather to impress the applicant with the 
knowledge of the examiner than to elicit information with regard 
to the skill of the tradesman. Herein lay the great weakness of 
the method. The foreman was chosen on the basis of considera- 
tions other than those of skilful interviewing. He was much 
more likely to be a skilled workman than a skilled interviewer. 
It would be absurd to say that this method of employment is 
unworkable. It is claimed, however, that under ordinary con- 
ditions it is a very wasteful procedure. This method of de- 
centralized employment has been abandoned, not because the 
foreman was not a skilled examiner, but because of the growth 
of the industries themselves. In the interests of reduction of 
labor turnover and in the interests of production, it became 
necessary to have the hiring done by a small group of men. 
When this centralizing takes place, intimate knowledge of the 
operations of the trade can no longer be expected of the ex- 
aminer. While it may be possible in a few of the most im- 
portant occupations of the plant to have specialists within the 
employment office, it is utterly out of the question to have ex- 
perts in all of the occupations concerned. The work of employ- 
ment, therefore, has had to be handed over to a small group of 
specialized men who can have, from the nature of things, only 
the most superficial knowledge of the jobs for which they are 
doing the hiring. 



364 TRADE TESTS 

Common Methods of Interview in the Centralized 
Employment Office 

The use of a corps of trade experts within an employment 
ofhce is a possible solution, but it is an exceedingly expensive 
method of operation. There is an old saying, "Never let a 
superior mind do what an inferior mind can do equally well," 
which this method openly flaunts. Superior knowledge and 
superior skill do not exist in such quantity that industry can 
afford to use such skill except in strategic places where it is 
demanded. 

Another practice which is very common is for the employment 
office staff to give a general interview, and on the basis of this 
refer the applicants for a specific trade interview to the foremen 
of the various shops. To this procedure, the same objection 
may be raised. It is exceedingly wasteful to use the time of a 
skilled foreman in interviewing a large number of unsuitable 
applicants. His attention should be, as far as feasible, concen- 
.trated on what is taking place within his shop. He should be 
distracted to the minimum degree by matters of hiring. Before 
using a workman it is, of course, necessary for the foreman to 
be satisfied that he is efficient, but this does not mean that he 
should interview all applicants. The foreman should receive 
for further testing only those who by their trade examination 
within the employment office have shown sufficient knowledge 
and skill to give promise of being suited to the job. Simply 
because a man claims trade ability and succeeds in passing an 
unskilled interviewer is not sufficient ground for reference to 
the foreman. If this method of hiring is used, production and 
efficiency within the shop are bound to suffer. Any simple 
form of trade test, administered by an intelligent interviewer, 
would eliminate ninety per cent of the useless references. 



ARMY AND INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM 365 

There is still another method which is commonly employed, 
where the interviewing within the central employment office 
is done by the same group of men for all trades. This consists 
in allowing the interviewers to visit the departments or shops 
for which they are doing the hiring. During slack periods in 
the employment office work, or in some cases, for a stated period 
before they enter upon their duties in the central office, they are 
given opportunities to study and in certain cases to perform 
some of the more typical operations of the shop. They are also 
encouraged to get a few ''stock questions" from the foreman, 
with which they can at least detect the trade bluffer. Here we 
have the first beginnings of the trade test idea. While this 
scheme is far better than that in which the interviewer has no 
trade knowledge, the obvious criticism to which it is subject 
lies in the well-known fact that a little knowledge is a dangerous 
thing. The author has seen interviewing done by young men 
in the employment office, where the whole object of the pro- 
cedure seemed to be to prevent the "interviewer" from appear- 
ing to lack thorough trade knowledge. When the examiner is 
out of his depth, the skilled workman is the first to detect the 
fact. Under these conditions he feels that he is either passing 
through a purely formal examination, or else that he is being 
made a fool of. Both of these situations are unfortunate for the 
reputation and effectiveness of the employment office. All who 
have worked in industry know how important it is that a good 
understanding exist between the various shops and the office, an 
understanding that should not be confined merely to the fore- 
man, but should extend to each man in the plant. 

From what has already been said, the use of the methods of 
job analysis and the application of trade tests, are not theoretical 
ideas which will have to fight for a hearing. The situation in 
almost all large industries is crying out for some device which 



366 TRADE TESTS 

will meet the present difficulties of operation. Every large 
employment office, either through its follow-up work, when 
using methods of general interview, or else through its expensive 
office payroll, when the examinations are conducted by experts, 
knows how necessary is some radical change to better the me- 
chanism of placement. Just as in the army the occupational 
specifications and trade tests came into existence to meet urgent 
demands of the personnel officers, who saw that their own 
methods were completely breaking down, so also in industry 
job analysis and trade tests will enter to fill a want, the magni- 
tude of which is best known to the employment office itself. 



CHAPTER X 
PROBLEM OF OCCUPATIONAL ANALYSIS 

The Problem of Occupational Analysis 

The general purpose of this book does not admit of any 
description of the way in which a plant should conduct analyses 
and construct sets of specifications for each job. 

The problem of job analysis, while simple enough as far as 
the idea is concerned, becomes very complex when the work is 
commenced. It may, however, be pointed out that from the 
very beginning of time, implicitly at least, there have been 
rough forms of analysis. Plato's "RepubKc" gives us an ad- 
mirable example of job analysis on a large scale. All that is 
proposed is to conduct these analyses in a much more scientific 
and detailed manner, making common property what often is 
the mental property of a single man. 
Any analysis of a job can be made from two viewpoints: 
(i) the human qualities and properties for which it calls, 
(2) a detailed account of the actual operation and skills char- 
acteristic of the job. 

Of these two types the second is by far the more useful. It 
is exceedingly diJB&cult with reference to any particular job to 
decide just what are the human qualities required. Whenever 
an analysis of this kind is attempted, the common list of human 
qualities such as perseverance, patience, adaptabiHty, thorough- 
ness, etc., gets rapidly used up and the result is a meaningless 
jumble. It is often found that for twenty or thirty entirely 

367 



368 TRADE TESTS 

different jobs within the plant the same basic human quahties 
are required. The only difference existing between the jobs is 
found in the different skills which are required, and only ia 
these terms can the job be accurately deffned. Industr}- should 
be extremely skeptical of any method for selecting personnel 
based on obser^'ation of different basic human quahties. Ap- 
pHed psycholog}' has been brought iato great disrepute b\- 
charlatans who have clamied to be able, by mere obserA'ation. 
to rate employees for all important traits. The author knows in 
particular of two or three cases of exploitation of this kind, 
vrhere the individual iu question rated each member of the 
employment force ia twenty to thirty important human traits, 
^-ithout spending, on the average, more than five minutes 
A^dth each indiWdual. To measure human quahties, ia fact, to 
discover any objective scales upon which honesty, perseverance, 
adaptabnity, loyalty, cooperation can be reported is work which 
hes iu the distant future of psychology-, work which will of neces- 
sity be slow and disappouiting. taxing human iagenuity and 
patience to the uttermost, ^^^lile it is true that fairly accurate 
methods of measuring certain forms of inteUigence have been 
evolved, and are now apphed with great success in industr}-. too 
great warning cannot be given against the supposition that 
the success of these methods for measuring inteUigence, which 
have been the result of twenty years of labor, will lead to the 
immediate evolution of methods for measuring these more com- 
plex human traits. In fact the beginnings of measurements of 
this kind practically are not yet in sight. Especially must the 
emplo\-ment manager be warv- of those persons who claim 
heaven-sent skill, and methods which savor more of witchcraft 
than of the scientidc laborator}-. Even if it were possible to 
conduct a job analysis upon the basis of the human quahties 
reqtiired. such an analysis would be of Kttle serA-ice. until an 



OCCUPATIONAL ANALYSIS 369 

accurate method of measuring these human quahties had been 
devised. 

When, however, we pass from the job analysis in terms of 
human quahties to actual analysis of the skills and duties of 
the job, we pass from the shifting sand of human judgment to 
the firm foundation of concrete fact. Whatever may be the 
form and the details in which these analyses are made, there 
seems to be general agreement that three distinct characteris- 
tics of the job must be analyzed. / 

1. The physical characteristics of the job. 

2. The mental characteristics of the job. 

3. The economic aspects of the job. 

The essence of a good analysis is to pick out the essential 
elements under each of these aspects, and to describe them in 
standard terms, which will mean the same to all men at all 
times. Under the physical aspects of jobs, the precise nature of 
the work, in so far as it requires a particular physical organiza- 
tion, will be described. Thus, for example, whether it is heavy 
work, whether it involves sitting, standing, climbing, hauling, 
etc. Under mental characteristics will be included an account 
of the educational requirements, the necessary training defined 
as far as possible by stating the actual operations which the 
job demands, that is, the actual tools which must be employed, 
the machines which must be run, or the procedures which must 
be followed. 

In large numbers of speciaKzed shops it may be advisable, 
in constructing these specifications, to distinguish clearly be- 
tween the general duties of the occupation and the specialized 
duties which are called for by the particular nature of the work 
in that shop or plant. For example, in a particular machine 
shop, the basic duties of the occupation might be those of the 
general machinist, which would be listed. In addition to these, 



370 TRADE TESTS 

however, there would be specialized duties characteristic possi- 
bly of this shop alone. These two types of duties should be dis- 
tinguished in order to simpHfy the problem of the employment 
ofhce. The trade test or any form of interview must be based 
on the general duties or operations, since no appHcant, unless 
he had previously worked in the plant, could be expected to 
be familiar with the specialized duties. 

Under economic aspects all such questions as methods of 
payment (by time, piecework) , hours of work, basis and avenues 
of promotion are included. 

These specifications, as has already been said, will introduce 
a common language upon which exchange can take place. When 
requisitions come from a foreman, there will be no chance for 
vague general terms. Instead of six machinists being called for, 
the foreman will ask for two men to fulfill the requirements of 
job 27, and four men to fulfill the requirements of job 36. No 
misunderstandings can arise under these conditions, such as 
those often found in the army. Thus, for example, an amusing 
case arose in response to a call for a pipe cutter. The qualifica- 
tion cards were consulted, and a ''pipe cutter" was assigned to 
work. When he reported and was put to work on a sewer in 
the camp, it appeared that he was a carver of meerschaum pipes! 
While this is an extreme case, any industry in the course of a 
week could duplicate equally useless references, due to the fact 
that no common language is used in making requisitions. With 
the entrance of job specifications and the application of trade 
tests, all such ambiguities automatically disappear. 



CHAPTER XI 

WHAT THE TRADE TEST IS NOT 

The Trade Test is Not an Intelligence Test nor does it 
Serve to Predict the Rate at which Skill can be 
Acquired by Training 

When the various occupations within a particular industry 
have been analyzed, the next step is to decide on those trades 
or occupations for which it is advisable to construct some form 
of trade test. Obviously, in the case of unskilled occupations, 
and in a large number of other occupations, for which skill 
can be acquired in a few hours, there is no need for any form 
of trade test. It is necessary to distinguish very clearly, at this 
point, between the function of trade tests and two other types 
of examination which are entering the industrial field. 

The first of these is the mental intelligence test. Here no 
attempt is made to measure any specific skill which has resulted 
from trade experience. The examination confines itself to an 
attempt to measure general mental adaptability. In so far as 
any particular job requires this mental equipment, rather than 
any specific trade skill, the mental test can be used with great 
advantage, but it should never be confounded or combined 
with the. trade test proper. Intelligence is dependent almost 
wholly on a native endownnent ; trade knowledge is primarily 
the result of specific training which has for its object the de- 
velopment of this particular trade skill. 

The second type of test which must not be confused with a 

371 



372 TRADE TESTS 

trade test is that for skill prediction. For a large number of 
occupations very little training is required; in fact, many in- 
dustries prefer to take on "green hands/' and to traiQ them 
for the particular operations which they are to perform. The 
performance of these operations may, however, be dependent 
upon certain quahties or traits within the Lndi\'idual, which 
var}- greatly from person to person. These qualities are not 
the basic human quahties to which reference has been made. 
namely, honesty, pHabihty, perseverance, etc., but much more 
specific traits. For example, for certain kinds of work it is 
known that good eyesight, keen \'isual and tactual discrimina- 
tion, a good memor\-, quick reaction, accuracy of movement, 
steadiness of attention are necessary. Xo claim is made that 
all these traits are required for any particular occupation, but 
even the most superficial analysis of some occupations reveals 
the necessity for certain of these traits in more than average 
amounts. Thus, for example, in the case of the telephone opera- 
tor it may readily be seen that a quick reaction to a certain 
tA-pe of stimulus, and a ready memor}' for certain kinds of ma- 
terial are a sine qua non for success. Or again, for a great deal 
of inspection work where very minute fiaws in parts have to 
be detected, good eyesight and keen Aisual and tactual discrimi- 
nation are essential assets. Experiments on large numbers of 
uidi\iduals. performed in different places and at different times, 
have all agreed in one respect, that there are enormous indiA-idual 
differences in the degree in which these traits are possessed 
by various indiAiduals. Perhaps the most outstanding contri- 
bution during the last twenty-five years of the appKcation 
of psycholog}^ to human beha\-ior has been the revelation of 
these extreme uidi\adual differences. These differences, as they 
exist, are not due primarily to the training which the person 
has received, but are much more fundamental in so far as the 



WHAT THE TRADE TEST IS NOT 373 

traits are the result of the inheritance of a definite nervous 
mechanism. Training has, of course, some effect upon the final 
skill which the person acquires, but the extent to which he 
profits by the training is very dependent upon the particular 
nervous mechanism which he brings to the learning process. It 
is by no means merely a question of perseverance. In some 
cases, though perseverance be unstinted, and the period of 
training as long as possible, skill in tactual and visual discrimi- 
nation will be poorer than it is in other cases before the period of 
training is commenced. In fact, in a large number of what are 
called elemental traits, the amount of improvement with prac- 
tice is very small. It is patent that it is extremely wasteful for 
industry to hire for a particular operation requiring very keen 
visual or tactual discrimination applicants who do not possess 
this trait in a fairly high degree. Failure in a large number of 
employees cannot be attributed to the employee himself, but 
is due to the faulty method of selection used by the employment 
ofhce. A particular applicant, who in all general respects may 
be competent for a hundred and one jobs, may have such a 
low degree of the trait essential for a specific process that it is 
absolutely futile to attempt to train him. Under these condi- 
tions, it is very desirable to have some form of tests which will 
distinguish between individuals of different degrees of native 
endowment. Such tests are in no sense trade tests. They make 
no attempt to measure skill which has been acquired in a specific 
occupation. They are essentially ''skill prediction" tests, or 
''vocational aptitude" tests, as they have been sometimes 
called. They do not measure skill and information which the 
individual actually has acquired when following a trade, but 
they attempt to measure the suitability of the applicant for 
entering upon a process of training. 

While these two forms of test, the mental test and the skill 



374 TRADE TESTS 

prediction test, both have a great sphere of useftdness in indus- 
try, it is verv' essential to precise thinking on the subject of 
industrial testing not to confuse these with the trade test proper. 
The trade test makes no pretence at measuring inteUigence 
directly; it makes no attempt to measure the native endowment 
of the subject, with a view to predicting the degree of success 
to be expected as a result of training in a specific trade; the 
trade test furnishes a rating, in objective quantitative terms, of 
the degree of trade abihty already possessed as a result of prac- 
tice in the trade. 

Nevertheless, in a verv real sense, a trade rating can. 
under certain conditions, be used as a help in predicting the 
future capability of a tradesman. This point will now receive 
attention. 

Interpretation of the Trade Status Rating 

A rating of a tradesman cannot, under all circumstances, be 
taken at its face value. It must in many cases be interpreted 
in terms of his previous educational experience, the amount and 
variety of his previous industrial experience, and such other 
social and personal data as are signihcant. For example, two 
men, both rating as apprentices when given the same test, are 
of totally different trade value, if one has earned the rating as 
the result of six months' experience whereas the other has been 
engaged in the trade for live years and still earns the same rat- 
ing. In the last-named case, owing to lack of intelligence or 
lack of interest, in spite of considerable experience in the trade. 
the learning process has been so slow that Kttle prospect can 
be entertained of any considerable advance with further train- 
ing. The man is an apprentice and will probably remain an 
apprentice all his life. In the first case, however, the achieve- 
ment in the test is such that rapid progress may be expected as 



WHAT THE TRADE TEST IS NOT 375 

the result of further experience. For present purposes both 
men may be of equal value, but from the standpoint of future 
usefulness they have totally different worth. A trade rating is 
a measure which must be interpreted in the light of other factors 
than those of present performance. 



CBL\PTER Xn 

THE r-E nl THE VAEKX'S TITES OF TILiDE 

TE-TS 

The Use of Ike Oral Test 

Tzz : r :i - :.. : form of trade test diall be used, 

::i : : :t : ::: : -^-itten, dqjcnds wiiolfy on the 

- : : il^r purpose of the test witbin 

:. r : : :_: _7 :: ri. : :: r :i:ive to be taken into am- 

-Lt-::::- ^ :;.:_-:::.r -, ±^::\ -:::r. WHle i: fi ":;:,;::. ,)f 



55 of woikman 
~ :5e to start 



tion doseiy i- 



376 



USE OF THE VARIOUS TYPES 377 

The Non-specialized Question 

One of the dangers to be avoided in the compilation of groups 
of questions for specific trades within a particular industry is 
the possibility of securing a number of questions which are 
dependent entirely on a purely local condition. To illustrate, 
within a particular shop twenty or thirty general machinists 
might be found working on the same class of work, one confined 
wholly to this particular shop. In spite of the fact that this 
process was very specialized and remote from the ordinary run 
of work of a machinist, there would be grave danger in making 
the assumption when compiling the questions that information 
in regard to these processes must be possessed by all general 
machinists who apply for work at the employment office. Pro- 
vided such men existed, it would be perfectly legitimate to 
frame a test which demanded the precise information, important 
for that particular shop. Usually, however, the employment 
manager under such conditions is perfectly satisfied to have a 
good general machinist, knowing that his trade ability can be 
rapidly adapted to the specialized jobs of the shop. Unless, 
therefore, the attempt is being made to hire very specialized 
labor, which is already skilled in the particular processes, it is 
very necessary to avoid questions which are not representative 
of the general trade. This difficulty was obviated in the army 
by visiting a large number of plants in three geographical cen- 
ters. The selection of the plants within a particular center was 
based primarily upon differences of work performed by men 
following the same trade. Where two plants employed men of 
the same occupation, doing almost identically the same work, an 
attempt was made, in the process of compilation and standard- 
ization, to avoid using the men in both these plants. In this 
way all localisms of the trade and all highly specialized processes, 



378 TRADE TESTS 

connned to one or two piants, were avoided. When the qaes- 
tkxis are cmnpfled, not within a dozen plants but within a single 
I^ant. this point will have to be voy carefully i^r^.ijiri. Li- 
vam'i.y in ~'zz imy pioceduie it was found that a numbo- <rf 
the : by the expats within lit ir^: ;"i-: 

>'i£!':r : 7 : -^r'le to eipots in otho* 7 _ i ~ : 5 

-:i- T It 7 - : : : ^voiding higjslv spe: ^7 : r^- 
noTis. Vi.:./- --.-/::.:. ; ;. _: i any sizt i^trr 1:7 1 .:^t 
~ -j::! t: iio ja^ve not grown up zr.z7z Iz fact, the usual 

t:\: : _ r :r i? its raq[»d labcMvr.^" : r: I: ie i~ il: — inf 

.: ;_;~"S l: r::i — liiese verv men :.i~ r^rzii:: "_._.:.•:. 7 _r.- 



it of studv c: 



^Lmg, ms 



an occasKma. 
questicMis whi 
case of smat 



USE OF THE VARIOUS TYPES 379 

Factor of Coaching 

Within the army the danger of previous coaching of the 
recruit was reduced to a minimum, by giving the examination 
at the time of entry. It formed but a small part of a larger 
process of examination. The recruit at the end of the whole 
examination had little chance of remembering the details of 
any part of it. Even if information were retained by a recruit, 
it was almost impossible to transfer this information to other 
men who at a later time would come up for examination. When 
the trade tests were first constructed, the danger of coaching 
was felt to be so real that supplementary questions were added, 
which did not form part of the examination upon which the man 
was rated. The instructions with regard to the use of these 
supplementary questions called for their administration, if by any 
chance the suspicions of the examiner were aroused, causing him 
to think that the candidate had been coached for the examina- 
tion. The whole group of supplementary questions was never 
given to any one candidate. It was discovered, however, that 
coaching was not taking place, with the result that in the later 
forms of test the supplementary questions were omitted. 

The assumption that in industry the coaching factor will not 
enter would be erroneous. A method of oral or picture trade 
testing must be devised which will frustrate any attempts in 
this direction. There is only one way in which the danger can 
be avoided, i.e., by having a large number of questions which 
can be used in a more or less random order. There is probably 
QO trade so barren that it cannot furnish several hundred ques- 
tions conforming to the requirements which have already been 
cited. There is no reason why the more complex trades should 
not furnish several thousand satisfactory questions. In com- 
piling and standardizing these questions, a good mechanical 



380 TRADE TESTS 

deAdce for securing the necessary information is to use a filing 
system. Then each question which arises can be placed on a 
single card, on which the results of the prelim in ar}- tr\'-out and 
the final try-out can also be recorded. If the question is suit- 
able for the purpose for w^hich it was constructed, by a simple 
statistical method its degree of difficulty can be calculated and 
noted on the card. Another alternative is to construct several 
groups of questions combining, let us say. fifty questions of 
known degree of difficulty into twelve or ffi'teen sets of ten to 
twelve questions each. The score that may be expected on 
each one of these sets can then be deduced from the material 
furnished by the original cards. The advantage of the filing 
system is that questions can be added from time to time, thereby 
maintaining a cumulative system of examination. 

St'Qndard of Achieiements in Industry 

The question of establishing standards of achievement raises 
a further point concerning the contrast between army and indus- 
trial conditions. WTien a recruit claiming skill was examined in 
the camp to which he was sent, his rating in the trade examina- 
tion was in many cases the sole criterion for transfer to meet 
trade requisitions in other camps or in France. It was abso- 
lutely necessar}- to have a form of examination which }'ielded 
a ver\' accurate rating of the degree of sldll possessed. A trade 
test, carelessly standardized, might easily result in the transfer 
of men to France who were entirely unsuited to periorm the 
work for which they were requisitioned. Again, the necessity 
for fine difi'erentiation between degrees of ability arose because 
of the extreme value of highly skiUed tradesmen. \Miere the 
army specffications called for an apprentice workman, it was 
ob\^ously wasteful to send a joume^Tnan or expert unless the 
two last named could not be used in any other place to greater 



USE OF THE VARIOUS TYPES 381 

advantage. This differentiation between apprentice, journey- 
man and expert and particularly between journeyman and 
expert necessitated very accurate standardization. Generally 
speaking, the accuracy which is sought in any instrument varies 
directly with the importance and finaHty of the decision which 
results from the measurement. In the case of the army, where 
transfer involving time and money was dependent upon the 
decision, it was very advisable to use every care in calibrating 
the test. The importance of the army decision was infinitely 
greater than that of the same decision usually made in industry, 
where failure or success merely results in rejection or reference 
to a foreman. Furthermore, the distinction between journey- 
man and expert, which made the process of standardization 
somewhat laborious for the army, is rarely called for in in- 
dustry. The three essential classifications in ninety per cent 
of the interviews in an employment ofiice are (i) novice or 
bluffer, (2) a helper or learner, (3) journeyman (skilled man). 
Usually these three classes are so well separated by any form 
of test that the process of standardization can be much cur- 
tailed. It is impossible to lay down any general rule. The 
feeling of the author is, however, that particularly at the time 
of introduction of trade tests into industry it is very easy to 
spend too much eft'ort in accurate calibration of questions and 
tests. Each question must of course be administered to a suffi- 
cient number of men of different degrees of trade standing to 
insure its conformity to the requirements of a good oral or pic- 
ture test. Too much time can hardly be spent in acquiring 
facility in constructing the question yielding the right type of 
answer; too much time cannot be spent in confirming the fact 
that the content of the question is satisfactory, but it will be 
very easy to waste time by attempting to calibrate the tests to 
make fine distinctions when the tests themselves, under the 



382 TRADE TESTS 

actual conditions of the employment office, will never be called 
upon to make such line differentiations. 

The Use of the Perjormame Trade Test 

If for language reasons or because the nature of the trade 
does not lend itself to oral or picture methods it is decided to 
use a performance test, great care must be taken in the choice 
of the performance or performances. The operation must be 
typical of the trade as it is carried out in various plants. It 
must be of such simplicity that on the basis of time taken and 
product produced the applicant can be rated objectively. Fi- 
nally it must differentiate between those levels of trade ability 
which at a later time it will be used to measure. Generally 
speaking, unless a particular performance reveals a marked dif- 
ference in skill between the apprentice and journeyman, it will 
be of no wide service in industry. WTiether the test need dis- 
tinguish between the ordinary journeyman and the so called 
expert, is much more doubtful. In those plants with which the 
author is familiar, such differentiation is not usually demanded. 

The scope of the performance test is unlimited; its main ad- 
vantages and disadvantages have already been touched upon. 
It may, however, be interesting to note how the performance 
trade test differs from the usual try-out given to an applicant 
by the foreman. In the latter it is commonly a matter of chance 
what operation is used as the test; it depends on the machines 
that are free, the time of day and the caprice of the foreman. 
Particularly, if a foreman takes a dislike at sight to an applicant, 
the operation assigned for performance is apt to be an extremely 
difficult one, with failure almost certain. No detailed standard 
directions or specifications are given with reference to the job 
itself. If the foreman has free time, the applicant has a much 
better chance for receiving full explanations than if the shop is 



USE OF THE VARIOUS TYPES 383 

busy and the foreman rushed. Another essential difference is 
that in the usual try-out there are no standards of achievement 
laid down; the foreman uses his own personal judgment, not 
rating by the time factor or by attention to certain details of 
the process or qualities of the product, the importance of which 
have been already determined and correspondingly weighted in 
the final score. In other words the whole examination suffers 
from all the disadvantages which are the concomitant of a hap- 
hazard process as opposed to a scientific process. The result is 
that justice is not done to the applicant, the plant or the fore- 
man. The foreman is not to be blamed for the arbitrariness -of 
his judgment; with such a process of examination no other form 
of judgment is possible. Contrast this with the scientific per- 
formance test chosen after due experimentation with various 
procedures of the trade. Here every applicant is given the 
same job to perform, to each are given precisely the same tools 
and equipment, precisely the same directions; every applicant 
finally is judged according to fixed standards, on the basis of 
time consumed and certain qualities of the final product." There 
is the sarne chance for all, and ability can be judged and rated 
in terms which are objective and, therefore, comparable with 
the ratings of all other applicants. The standards are the same 
from month to month and are independent of the examiner giv- 
ing the test. The arbitrary and subjective judgment is replaced 
by the scientific measuring rod. 

The drawbacks which attend the performance method, from 
the standpoint of their industrial application, are: 

(i) the greater time consumed in examination, 

(2) the equipment necessary for the examination, i.e., tools, 

machines, material, 

(3) the room required for administering tests to several appli- 

cants at the same time, 

(4) the greater difficulty in constructing the test. 



384 TRADE TESTS 

If these points do not render the oral method the more ad- 
vantageous, the introduction of the performance test brings 
with it many incidental advantages. The attitude of the appli- 
cant towards this type of examination has already been con- 
sidered; there is no doubt that a well-chosen performance test 
gives the workman a feeling of satisfaction with regard to the 
fairness of the selective method which in certain cases is lack- 
ing when the oral tests are used. It is, however, rather easy 
to overestimate the importance of this point. In examining 
several hundred men each day for several weeks, in eighty trades, 
in a large emplo\Tnent ofhce, the author can only remember four 
cases in which the applicant openly expressed his skepticism 
and disapproval of the oral examination. In a large number of 
cases, where the oral test revealed little ability, the applicant 
would make statements such as the following: ''Well, I guess 
you called my bluff." "As a matter of fact, I never worked at 
the trade, but my father was in it and I thought I knew a good 
bit about it." "To tell the truth, I have only been on produc- 
tion work, but I thought I could get by as a machinist." In 
addition, the performance test, if well chosen, is almost free 
from the danger of coaching. Words may be learnt readily, 
but to master knacks and acquire skill is a very different matter. 
The claim cannot be made that an appl'cant cannot be coached 
for the examination, but it is much more difficult and requires 
much greater time than in the case of the oral tests. In a large 
plant it might be well to have several alternative tests, where 
there is any suspicion of special training taking place. 

There is of course no reason for an employment office limiting 
itself to one form of examination; presumably within the same 
office, oral, picture and performance tests will be employed 
according to the nature of the trade for which hiring is done. 
Under certain conditions even for the same trade, it may be 



USE OF THE VARIOUS TYPES 385 

advisable to have all types of examination. The first rough 
selection might well be based on rapid oral examination; if 
this was passed with a certain degree of proficiency, the appli- 
cant would then be given a systematic performance test to 
determine his final rating. Even where the oral test gives a 
sufficiently accurate rating of skill, as is usually the case, a per- 
formance test may be necessary if large numbers of foreigners 
have to be handled, a condition found in certain localities, in 
specific trades, such as cabinet making, etc. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE ADAPTATION OF THE TRADE TEST 

METHODS TO THE TRAINING OF 

EMPLOYEES 

The Use of the Trade Test Method in the Training 
or Employees 

Many large corporations, to fill their demand for skilled men, 
have installed or are installing their own trade schools, vesti- 
bule schools or educational departments. Within these schools 
a more formal type of instruction is given than that which can 
be expected in the shop itself. The advantage of this method of 
training is apparent. In the shop the main consideration is 
production; to this end all processes must lead. In so far as 
instruction is given, it is merely a means, within this unit, to 
increase the production. Under these conditions the efficiency 
of the learning process is sacrificed to the routine of the shop. 
The instruction is almost entirely confined to the actual proc- 
esses which the workman is called upon to perform; there is 
little attempt to choose typical processes which contribute to 
a broad understanding of the trade. Furthermore, the foreman 
who is in charge of what incidental instruction is imparted is 
more often chosen on account of his trade skill, or power of 
handling men, than on any consideration of his ability as a 
teacher or trainer. 

The specialization of departments, which on the production 
side has yielded such ample returns, is now extending to this 



ADAPTATION TO TRAINING 387 

phase of plant operation, namely the training of employees. It 
is not necessary to discuss whether the school is whole time or 
part time, but it is important to realize clearly the contrast 
between the training which is incidental to the shop and the 
school training which exists solely for the purpose of imparting 
instruction. Within the school there is no bogey of production, 
there is no need to sacrifice the learning process to other factors, 
though of course in the last analysis the school itself must by the 
efficiency and the rapidity with which it teaches justify its exist- 
ence, as a factor in increased production of the entire plant. 
However, the school during the training period can direct all 
its energies to devising and formulating educational methods 
and devices. The nature of these is dictated solely by the needs 
of the learners in the light of the occupations for which they 
are being trained. 

Within the educational department the three fundamental 
problems which arise are the old problems of the school. 

1. What shall be taught? 

2. How shall it be taught? 

3. How shall the efficiency of instruction be measured? 

In the solution of these problems the usefulness of trade tests 
and allied devices is apparent. W^hat shall be taught is largely 
determined by job analyses, the results of which supply accu- 
rate information concerning the actual knowledge and skills de- 
manded by the various, jobs. For certain purposes it may be 
necessary to consider the whole process of instruction as con- 
tributing to the turning out of a skilled mechanic, but from 
the standpoint of the teacher the more enlightened view ana- 
lyzes the total process into its elements. While it may be true 
that general trade ability is the final goal, the more immediate 
aims by which the goal can be reached are very definite and 
specific in their nature. To recognize this tool, to know its 



388 TRADE TESTS 

name, to know when and how it is used, to understand just 
how much heat must be appUed, to understand the working 
of this machine when doing a particular process, to know how 
to use a micrometer, how to mix solder, what stock is suited to 
the job under consideration, etc., are the immediate aims of 
instruction. 

The first procedure, therefore, before any attempt at impart- 
ing trade instruction is made, must be to discover what are the 
essential tools, the unportant processes and the common ma- 
terials of the occupation. When this information has been 
secured, the next problem is — How shall the various elements 
of information and the various kinds of skill be taught? The 
problem is that of devising a scheme of training w^hich will 
accomplish its ends in the minimum of time and with the mini- 
mum expense. The total body of information which has to be 
learned and the various skills which have to be acquired being 
known, the question is to construct a plan whereby the unskilled 
worker is converted into the competent tradesman. In what 
order shall the various processes be taught? Where shall the 
different elements of information be emphasized? What shall 
be the method of teaching each process? In what way is the 
necessary information most readily acquired and retained? All 
these are questions which press for solution. In the solving of 
these problems an adaptation of the methods of the trade test 
can be employed to great advantage. 

In the description of the oral tests it has been shown, that a 
series of questions can be devised which cover, by sampling, a 
range of knowledge of the w^hole trade. This w^as for the pur- 
pose of measuring with the maximum speed, the general trade 
ability of the workman. There is, however, no reason at all 
why this method, instead of being applied to the w^hole trade, 
should not be confined to first one element of the trade, then to 



ADAPTATION TO TRAINING 389 

another, until all the significant phases of the occupation have 
been covered. Thus, instead of having a series of twenty ques- 
tions concerning twenty representative elements of the ma- 
chinist trade, there might well be twenty to fifty questions on 
each of forty, let us say, essential processes of the trade. By 
way of illustration, we can consider a number of characteristic 
jobs of the machine trades, compiled by the Committee on 
Education and Special Training of the War Department and 
reproduced by special permission. 

WAR DEPARTMENT 

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION 
AND SPECIAL TRAINING 

NUMERICAL LIST OF JOB SHEETS 

General Tools and Operations 

1. Use a file properly on work furnished by instructor. 

2. Use a hack saw properly on work furnished by instructor. 

3. Grind a cold chisel. 

4. Use a properly made screw driver in the right way. 

5. Use a caliper. 

1 6. Chip a flat surface. 

7. Use properly the wrenches required on the job assigned. 

8. Lay out work according to blue print. 

9. Lay out and chip a key way. 

10. File a ke3rway to size and fit the key. 

11. Grind cutting tools (lathe, shaper or planer). 

12. Use properly the taps required on the job assigned. 

13. Use properly the threading dies required on the job assigned. 

14. Measure accurately with a micrometer. 

15. Scrape a surface. 

16. Measure and classify tapers of various sizes. 

17. Use properly the hand reamer required on the job assigned. 
^ 18. Solder a piece of j^rass to a piece of steel. 

^ Not published in advance edition. 



390 TRADE TESTS 

1 19. Babbitt a bearing. 

20. Build a fire in the forge. 

21. Cut off stock at the anvil. 
1 22. Draw out a piece of iron. 

23. Forge, harden, temper and grind a cold chisel 

^ 24. Forge a U clamp. 

^25. Forge a bolt blank. 

^ 26. Forge a nut blank. 

^27. Join two pieces of stock by welding. 

Lathe 

loi. Put a lathe through its paces. 

102. Drill and ream center holes. 

103. Face a piece to a given length. 

104. Turn a piece to a given diameter. 

105. Turn shouldered work. 

106. Determine the proper use of lathe chucks. 

107. Finish a hole in a lathe (drill, bore and ream). 

108. Turn a taper. 

109. Cut a thread in a lathe. 

no. Face and turn work held on a mandrel. 

111. Turn an angle, using the compound rest. 

112. Bore a taper hole. 

113. Use a steady rest for turning. 

114. Use a steady rest for boring. 

115. Cut a square thread. 

116. Cut a metric thread. 

117. Cut a metric thread. 

118. Cut an inside thread in a lathe. 

119. Set up work on a face plate. 

Drill Press 

201. Put a drill press through its paces. 

202. Grind a twist drill. 

203. Hold work on the drill press. 

^ Not published in advance edition. 



ADAPTATION TO TRAINING S91 

204. Drill holes as per layout. 

205. Use a machine reamer in a drill press. 
1 206. Use a counterbore in a drill press. 

^ 207. Use a boring tool in a drill press. 
1 208. Use a tap in a drill press. 

WAR DEPARTMENT 

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION 
AND SPECIAL TRAINING 

Shaper 

301. Put a shaper through its paces. 

302. Finish a rectangular piece in a shaper. 
^ 303. Plane a bevel surface in a shaper. 

1 304. Plane a tongue and groove. 

1 305. Plane an irregular surface. 
^ 306. Plane a key way in a shaft. 
^ 307. Plane a key way in a gear. 

1 401. Put a planer through its paces. 

^ 402. Hold a piece of work on the planer table. 

^403. Plane a horizontal fiat surface. 

^ 404. Plane a vertical surface and a bevel surface, 

Milling Machine 

501. Put a milling machine through its paces. 
^ 502. Select a milling cutter. 



^503. 


Mill a plane surface. 


^504. 


Mill a rectangular piece. 


^505. 


Mill a keyway. 


1506. 


Face mill a surface. 


507- 


Put a dividing-head through its paces. 


1508. 


Mill a bolt head square. 


'509. 


Cut a spur gear. 


^510. 


Cut a reamer. 


^511. 


Mill the square on a tap. 




1 Not published in advance edition. 



392 TRADE TESTS 

Grinding Machine 

1 6oi. Put a grinding machine through its paces. 

1 6o2. Select an abrasive wheel. 

^ 603. Grind a cylinder. 

^ 604. Grind a taper. 

^ 605. Grind a hole. 

^ 606. Grind a face. 

^ 607. Grind a cutter. 

^ Within the field of each one of these operations, a series of 
directions and questions covering the essential elements of in- 
formation has been constructed. These questions serve to 
bring out within each operation what are the points of impor- 
tance with which the skilled tradesman must be acquainted. 
One of the great weaknesses of present methods of instruction 
both in the public schools and in industry is that the pupil 
does not know, and at present has no way of finding out, what 
are the really fundamental elements which must be given atten- 
tion. When attempting for the first time a particular job, each 
part of the operation appears to the learner to be of equal im- 
portance; minor details are given just the same attention as 
the essential parts of the process. There is no assessment of 
relative values. In a great many cases the learner is so over- 
powered by the details and the secondary factors that the main 
points escape attention. How often after failure to benefit by 
instruction we hear the learner say, "I did not realize at the 
time that it was essential; if only I had known I would not 
have overlooked it." 

It is just this difficulty that a series of well-chosen questions 
will obviate. Each question will call attention to some aspect 
of the work, an understanding of which is essential to future 
success in the trade. Concerning the minor parts, which may 

1 Not published in advance edition. 



ADAPTATION TO TRAINING 393 

weH be left for a future occasion, there will be no questions. 
The attention of the learner will be directed wholly to the ele- 
ments of vital importance. 

The questions will not only tell the learner what are the 
essential elements, but they will also call for definite answers. 
The workman from the very beginning will have to talk the 
language of his trade. It is a remarkable fact how limited the 
trade language of many skilled workmen is; especially is this 
true in respect to the names of tools and processes. Again and 
again when compiling the army tests, it was necessary to elimi- 
nate a question for the simple reason that even skilled men did 
not know trade names. A tool or operation which had a per- 
fectly definite and simple name would be referred to as a '' hickey " 
or ''the job the foreman does." In fact in one plant the em- 
ployer was so impressed with the ignorance in this respect of 
even his best men, as revealed by the preliminary set of trade 
test questions, that he informed the author that he was going 
to do a "little schooling on his own," in order to remedy a state 
of affairs which could not but cause confusion in the stockroom 
and shop. This condition is produced by a system of haphazard 
instruction, in which the learner is told to use this tool or to per- 
form that job without ever having a chance to hear the exact 
language of his trade. 

No mention has yet been made of the form in which the in- 
struction within each important aspect of the trade shall be 
given. The series of questions will merely call attention to cer- 
tain fundamental elements ; it yet remains to discuss the man- 
ner in which the learner is introduced to the operation under 
consideration. 

One common method is to assign the learner to work with a 
skilled tradesman or teacher, virtually a modification of the 
old apprentice system. In other cases, the learner is put through 



394 TRADE TESTS 

his paces in a more or less systematic fashion by the foreman. 
Both these methods are exceedingly wasteful for reasons already 
discussed, but until recent times, no other recognized method 
has been available. 

Under either of the above forms of instruction, the whole 
process was haphazard, depending to too great a degree on the 
workman, teacher or foreman. If the pupil was sulhciently 
curious to "worm out " the necessary information, or the teacher 
stifficiently attentive and conscientious in the imparting of 
knowledge, the process might be reasonably satisfactorv;, but 
in the large majority of cases the instruction was of a perfunc- 
tory nature, from which the pupil derived the minimum of skill 
and information. ^loreover the jobs or tasks were as a rule 
not well chosen for the purpose of teaching the essential ele- 
ments of the trade, and even where the operation was well 
chosen the teacher did not allow the learner sufficient first-hand 
experience to perform the processes or to become acquainted 
with the tools and machines. A more systematic method of 
instruction was badly needed. 

The fundamental principles upon which the performance 
test was constructed furnishes a valuable method of attacking 
this training problem. Instead of the training operations being 
performed tmder chance and varvdng conditions, a de\'ice for 
training is necessary- where ever\' operation is performed under 
controlled conditions. Xow from what has already been said, 
it is ob^-ious that the essence of the performance trade test 
method lies in the controlled conditions under which each job 
was executed. 

The scientific procedures of the examining de\-ice as found in 
the performance test, must be adapted to the construction of an 
equally scientific training de\-ice. It is a well-recognized fact 
that we learn by doing. Especially in the acquirement of skiU, 



ADAPTATION TO TRAINING 395 

the laboratory method is the only possibility. This being the 
case, the problem of instruction within any particular trade 
resolves itself into the determination of what are the most 
appropriate tasks for the learner. While job analysis determines 
the general nature of these tasks, there are several important 
considerations which must be borne in mind in the selection of 
the detailed operations. In the first place, each operation must 
include within itself the maximum number of useful elements. 
It must also be an operation which is essential or fundamental 
to the trade. Moreover, the jobs should be arranged in an order 
of increasing complexity. Commencing with a simple process 
basic to the trade, the job should gradually increase in difficulty 
until the final tasks are such as to demand the knowledge and 
skill required of an expert workman. All theoretical training 
should be given incidentally in connection with these assigned 
specific tasks. No workman should be allowed to pass from 
one job to another until he has shown the requisite amount of 
skill in the first operation. The manner in which the trade test 
ideas can be used in connection with each one of these tasks 
must now be discussed. 

It will be noted that the phrases '' specific tasks" and "learn- 
ing under controlled conditions" have been used. The problem 
is largely one of making these various operations specific and 
controlled. In the description which has been given of the con- 
struction of a performance test, the way in which an operation 
is standardized was made clear. The essential elements of this 
procedure are: . 

1. Very accurate statement of the practical problem. 

2. A clear enumeration of the tools and material necessary 
for the carrying out of the job. 

3. A specific statement of the essential qualities in the prod- 
uct obtained or essential activities in the process performed. 



396 TRADE TESTS 

These three elements are necessary when the purpose of the 
operation is to measure the abihty of the tradesman. Where, 
however, the purpose of the process is not to examine but to 
train, a further element will have to be added. Besides giving 
clear directions with regard to the required product, it will be 
necessary to give in great detail the problems to be met before 
this final product is obtained. In the description of the process 
there will be included a statement of the tools which have to be 
employed, and an account of the way in which the material must 
be handled, and any other incidental information which is essen- 
tial to the satisfactory performance of the operation. These 
detailed specifications of the problem, covering what has to 
be done, the equipment necessary, the methods of doing it, and 
the essential quality of the final product, will be collected into 
a single job sheet for that operation. It may well be that in- 
cluded in this job sheet there will be oral questions and even 
pictures which call attention to the salient features of the job. 
Each learner will be responsible for seeing that he understands 
and follows out in detail the exact operations called for by the 
job sheet. When one of these jobs has been completed, the 
learner will then pass on to the next, and so on until he has 
gone through all the typical operations which are necessary for 
success in the trade. There is of course the greatest room for 
skill in deciding the nature and sequence of these jobs. They 
should follow one another in an order which is conducive to 
rapid learning and each one should present real problems, the 
working out of which will equip the man with first-hand knowl- 
edge of practical details of construction or operation and 
provide a background for the understanding of scientific prin- 
ciples. A few typical job sheets in tentative form are here re- 
produced by permission of the War Department. 



ADAPTATION TO TRAINING 397 

WAR DEPARTMENT 

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION 
AND SPECIAL TRAINING 

MACHINISTS 
INTRODUCTION TO USE OF JOB SHEETS 

The Purpose of the Job Sheets. 

The purpose of the Job Sheet is to draw the attention to the under- 
lying principles and important features with which familiarity should 
be attained through the doing of the job. 

Directions for Using the lob Sheets. 

General directions sufficient for beginning the job are given in the 
first few questions of each job sheet. Start the work according to 
these directions, and, as the work progresses, determine from the 
remaining questions what other things should be done, the order in 
which they should be done and the method of doing them. Refer 
to the sheet from time to time as you progress in the work in order 
that you may be sure of observing the details which are important 
and may become familiar with the reasons for doing the job in a 
particular maimer. It is only by thoroughly understanding the 
underlying principles of this job that you will be able to undertake, 
intelligently, similar jobs depending upon the same principles. In 
this way, the knowledge gained from doing one job can be used to 
advantage in doing others. 

Sources of Information. 

There are several available sources from which you may obtain 
the information to which the questions relate. 

First: A study of the machines and tools which you are to use 
will furnish a fund of information that will be of value, not only in 
the job at hand, but in any similar job. 

Second: Copies of Text Books, Hand Books, Data Sheets, Manu- 
facturers' Catalogues and Instruction Books are available in the 
shop library. These should be consulted frequently. 

Third: Some of the men working with you may have had previ- 
ous experience which will enable them to help you. Do not hesitate 
to discuss the questions with the other men in the shop. 



398 TRADE TESTS 

Fourth: The instructor may be appealed to for such information 
as you are unable to get in any other way. However, he will gen- 
erally prefer to tell you where the information can be found, and 
correct any misinformation which you may have obtained from 
other sources. 

Note Particularly. 

It is of utmost importance that you know the answer to every 
question on the Job Sheet and it is equally important that you obtain 
this information by your own exertions rather than have the instruc- 
tor pass it out to you. Information obtained by experience is hkely 
to be retained and become a part of your personal knowledge, while 
information obtained from the instructor is readily forgotten. Stu- 
dents should regard the instructor not so much as a source of infor- 
mation as a court of last appeal, who can settle discussions and 
rectify mistakes. It is much better to have the instructor judge as 
to the correctness of the information which you have obtained by 
your own efforts than to have him give you the information himself. 



WAR DEPARTMENT 

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION 
AND SPECIAL TRAINING 

MACHINISTS 

Joh No. I 

Use a File Properly on Work Furnished by Instructor 

[Obtain a convenient piece of fiat or rectangular stock say about 
2" wide, and catch it in the vise. This piece may be scrap if one side 
is flat and smooth. Get a 12" bastard file from the tool-room and 
lay it across the piece.] 

1. Can you see between the file and the piece? 

2. Is the file thicker in the middle than at the ends? 

[Grasp the handle of the file in the right hand, thumb on top 
and end of handle against palm. Place the heel of the thumb of the 
left hand on the other end of the file and curl the fingers under. Do 
not bear too hard on the file, but try to file a spot in the middle of 



ADAPTATION TO TRAINING 399 

the work without touching near the edges. One or two careful 
strokes are enough.] 

3. What is one reason for having the file slightly convex or ''bellied "? 

4. If the file were not bellied, and warped in hardening, would its 

usefulness be impaired? Explain. 

5. If the file were not bellied, would it be easier to "take hold" or 

harder? Why? 

6. Grasp the file properly as directed above; make a dozen or more 

strokes and test the surface. Js it flat? Is it convex? 

7. What is the effect when filing if the right hand tends to go down 

and the left hand raises slightly? 

8. What is the effect when filing, if the right hand tends to raise 

and the left to go down? 

9. Is it easy to file the edges and produce a convex surface? 

10. It may be stated that in order to produce a flat surface with a 

10" or a 12" file, a harmonic movement of the arms, body and 
legs is necessary. What does this mean? 

11. What do you mean by a ''knack"? Is fiUng a flat surface a 

knack? How is a knack acquired? 

12. What is meant by crossing the cut in filing? 

13. Should the file be lifted from the work on the return stroke? 

What is the reason? 

14. When making the forward stroke in filing, should the side ten- 

dency be to the right or to the left? Why? 
[Obtain from the tool-room a flat bastard file, a hand bastard file, 
a second cut file and a mill file; sizes 12" or 10", if convenient.] 

15. What are the differences between a flat file and a hand file? 

16. What is the difference between a bastard file and a second cut file? 

17. In what way does the mill file differ from the other files? 

18. What do you understand by bastard? Second cut? Smooth? 

19. How is the length of a file measured? 

20. What is the difference between a "double cut" file and a "single 

cut" file? 

21. What is the difference between a "double cut" file and a "second 

cut" file? 

22. Which is the easier metal to cut with a file, cast iron or wrought 

iron? 



400 TRADE TESTS 

2^. How should the scale on castings be removed before filing the 
suriace? 

24. \Miat is the reason a nle should not be used to remove the scale 

from cast iron? 

25. \Miy should not a new nle be used on cast iron? 

20. W'hen should the coarser files be used? WTien should the finer 
rlrs e used? 

27. On narr^-w work, should an old nle or a new hie be used? Why? 

28. What can be done to keep cast iron filings from clogdns the 

nle? 

29. How is the handle properly fitted on the tang of a file? 
[Obtain from the tool-room the following files and place them on 

the bench in the order named: 10" half-roimd: S" pillar Xo. co: 
8" pillar Xo. 2: S" round second cut; 8" square second cut; and 
6" three-square slim.] 

30. What is meant by "safe edge" on a file? When is it ad\isable 

to use a file with a safe edge? If adA-isable covJd vou grind a 
safe edge on a file? 

31. What commonl}^ used file has two safe eiz^es? 
^2. Is a half-round file half round? 

SS- On what kind of surfaces is a haK-round file used? What is the 
purpose of ha\-ing teeth cut on the flat side? 

34. How is the cut of a file designated in the smaller sizes? 

35. Are the terms coarse and fine as apphed to files relative for all 

sizes of files? 

36. WTiat 12" file would you use to remove stock rapidl}-? What 

file would you use for finishing? 

37. What number 8" pillar file would you use for roughing? For 

finishing? 
3S. What is a file card? Ho~ nuy 2. piece of brass or copper rod 
be ir-?-:-e i:::o a most emcient file cleaner? 

39. Whsii causes ■Dinrine"'?" H:^^ rr:?-y the pin be removed? 

40. Hovr many .diferen: shades iriss section) of files are you able 

to find? 

41. What is a riiSe? Wnat is a •"needle handle" file? 

42. In your judgment, why should a single cut file be best for filing 

in a lathe? 



ADAPTATION TO TRAINING 401 

WAR DEPARTMENT 

COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION 
AND SPECIAL TRAINING 

MACHINISTS 

Job No. 23 

Forge, Harden, Temper and Grind a Cold Chisel 

[Obtain a piece of chisel steel of the size and length required, build 
a good, deep charcoal or coke fire and heat the steel to a forging 
heat.] 

[It is very necessary in forging to hammer with well-directed, 
snappy, soUd blows, and the hammering should be fast enough to 
"keep up the heat" of the steel. In forging it is advisable to keep 
in mind the general shape desired and forge along these lines. For 
example, in forging a chisel, cracks are often caused if the chisel is 
allowed to get too wide and afterwards forged back to width. In 
order then to forge a chisel in the right way and to have the effect 
of the hammer blows evenly distributed, it is necessary to alternate 
the operation on the flats and on the sides of the chisel.] 

1. What is the purpose of keeping the fire fairly small in circum- 

ference? 

2. Why is it necessary to have a deep fire? 

3. How far above the tuyere is the chisel placed in the fire? How 

deep in the fire is it buried? 

4. What is the disadvantage in having too much blast? In not 

keeping up enough blast? 

5. In what way will it injure tool steel to overheat it? 

6. What are the reasons for not hammering tool steel when the 

heat is lost? 

7. What do you understand by the terms white heat, yellow heat, 

red heat, welding heat, forging heat? 

8. How is a piece of steel heated ''thoroughly"? 

9. How heavy a hammer should you use when forging? 

10. What general shape of tongs is best? Why? 

11. How and where do you grasp the hammer? Why not choke it? 

Why not squeeze it? 



402 TRADE TESTS 

12. \Miat is meant by the term "annealing'? What two effects may 

anneahng have on steel? 

13. Why is it advisable to anneal a forged tool before hardening it? 

14. How may steel be annealed? What is meant by "water 

anneal"? What heat is suitable for annealing? 

15. What heat is suitable for hardening? What care must be taken 

in heating? Why? 

16. What is meant by hardening on a rising heat? Why is this 

advisable? 

17. How far back should a cold chisel be hardened? 

18. What is the proper temper color for a cold chisel? Why? 

19. Is a chisel harder or softer than a file? \Miy? 

20. WTiat do you mean by running the color? By drawing the 

temper? 

21. How is the chisel held against the grinding wheel? Why not rest 

the chisel on the tool rest? 

22. Wlien the face of the grinding wheel is grooved, how may the 

facets of a cold chisel be ground flat? 

23. What is the best cutting angle for a cold chisel? Why not 90 

degrees? Why not 50 degrees? 

24. Are the facets of a cold chisel flat? Is the cutting edge straight? 

25. When grinding a cold chisel, what precaution should be taken 

regarding the temper? 

26. How would you make a cold chisel if no fire suitable for forging 

is available? How could it be hardened and tempered? 

27. If no grinder is available, how may a cold chisel be sharpened? 

28. What is a cold chisel? What is a flat chisel? Cape chisel? Gouge 

chisel? 

WAR DEPARTMENT 

COilMITTEE OX EDUCATION 
AND SPECIAL TRAINING 

MACHINISTS 

Job Xo. loi 

Put a Lathe Through Its Paces 

I. Move the carriage along the top of the bed by hand. What are 
' the ways used for? How are they shaped? How are they 
finished? \Miy? 



ADAPTATION TO TRAINING 403 

2. Explain how the carriage is moved along the ways by hand. 

What is the feed rack? What is the feed rack pinion? Why 
is it called a pinion? 

3. How are the ways cleaned and oiled properly? What will occur 

if they are allowed to become dry? 

4. A large proportion of lathe work is done ''on centers." Where is 

the " live center " located? Where is the '' dead center " located? 

5. Why are the centers called "live" and "dead"? Which is hard? 

Which is soft? Why? 

6. Move the tail-stock along the bed. What other lengthwise 

adjustment may be given the dead center? 

7. If through carelessness the tail spindle is run off the screw, 

what caution must be taken regarding the key way? 

8. How is the dead center removed? What caution must be 

observed? 

9. How is the tail-stock adjusted sideways? Why is it necessary to 

first loosen the clamping bolts? Where are the "witness 
marks"? 

10. How is the tail spindle tightened? Will a quarter of a turn of 

the binding screw loosen it? Why turn the binding screw 
around three or four times? 

11. Where is the main spindle of the lathe? Why must it he sub- 

stantial and accurate? Why must the hearings be substantial 
and accurate? 

1 2 . What estabhshes " the center line of a lathe "? What is it parallel 

to? When is the dead center "in line"? 

13. How is the live center removed? What is the use of the " witness 

mark"? 

14. Why is the face plate removable? What is the proper method of 

removing it? What is the danger of starting it on when the 
machine is running? What is the diameter of the "large face 
plate"? What size lathe is this? 

15. What are two advantages of the hollow spindle? 

16. When do you clean and oil the thread and shoulder of the spindle? 

Why? 

17. What part of the carriage is called the saddle? The apron? The 

tool rest? 



404 TRADE TESTS 

i8. How is the top of the saddle finished? Why must it be kept 
clean and well oiled? 

19. Find, along the front of the bed, the lead screw and the feed 

rod; and on the apron,, the split-nut handle and the longi- 
tudinal feed control. 

20. Close the spUt-nut on the lead screw. Can you now move the 

carriage by hand? Give reason. 

21. Open the split-nut and tighten the feed control knob. Can you 

now move the carriage by hand? 

22. Loosen the feed control and tighten the carriage clamp screw. 

Can you move the carriage? 

23. \Miy does a macliinist, before starting to work on a lathe, al- 

ways try the carriage to make sure it moves freely? 

24. Be sure the carriage moves freely by hand and start the lathe. 

How is motion transmitted from the main spindle to the lead 
screw? To the feed rod? 

25. Arrange the tail-stock well back toward the end of the lathe and 

the carriage about midway between the head stock and tail- 
stock; have the feed rod turning and "■throw in the feed." 
How far does the carriage move while the lathe spindle makes 
25 revolutions? Di^^de by 2^ and tell how far it moves in 
one revolution. 

26. WTiat do you understand by the term "feed" in lathe work? 

27. How do you obtain a "coarser feed"' or a ""hner feed"" in this 

lathe? 

WAR DEPARTMEXT 

COilMITTEE OX EDUCATION 
AND SPECIAL TRAINING 

MACHINISTS 

Job Xo. 507 

Put a Dividing Head Through Its Paces 

I. Turn the index crank 10 turns -revolutions) and note what part 
of a revolution the work spindle makes. How many turns of 
the index crank are necessar>' to make one complete turn of 
the work? 



ADAPTATION TO TRAINING 405 

2. The work spindle is turned by an enclosed worm wheel. In 

certain other machines, possibly on the drill press, the action 
of the worm and worm wheel may be seen. Find an 
example. 

3. How can you determine the number of teeth on the worm wheel 

in the dividing head? 

4. If it takes 40 turns of the index crank to revolve the spindle once, 

what part of a revolution will the spindle make with 20 turns? 
With 5 turns? With 10 turns? With 6| turns? 

5. How many turns are necessary to index for a gear of 20 teeth? 

For 40 teeth? For 80 teeth? 

6. In each case, as above, a certain number divided by the number 

of teeth required gives the number of turns of the index handle. 
What is this number? 

7. State a rule for determining the number of turns or the fractional 

part of a turn of the index handle to be made for any given 
number of divisions. 

8. How many turns for 10 divisions? For 5 divisions? For 8 divi- 

sions? For 6 divisions? 

9. How many circles of holes has the index plate that is now on the 

head? How many of these circles are divisible by 3? How 
would you obtain two- thirds of a turn? 

10. Are there any index plates, other than the one now on the head, 

furnished with this machine? 

11. If the index pin is not in a circle divisible by 3, how may the 

index crank be adjusted radially to permit the pin to enter a 
hole in the desired circle? 

12. What do you use to save counting the holes for every move? 

How are the arms adjusted and set to include the desired 
number of holes? 

13. If two- thirds of a turn is required and an i8-hole circle is used, 

how many holes are included between the arms of the sector? 
Why not twelve? 

14. What part of a turn wiU you make to cut a gear of 42 teeth? 

What circle will you use? How many holes will be included 
between the arms of the sector? 

15. In which direction should the index crank be turned? Why? 



406 TRADE TESTS 

1 6. Wliat keeps the index plate from turning when the crank is 

turned? 
[The worm and worm-wheel and the spindle are arranged within 
a casting more or less cylindrical in form, which is so mounted on 
the base plate of the head, as to permit of its being set and securely 
locked at any angle from 5" below the horizontal to 30^ beyond the 
perpendicular.] 

17. Tip the head to a vertical position. Can indexing be accom- 

phshed? Tip the head to 45 degrees. Are you able to index 
in this position? 

18. In some makes of tadex heads a plate with 24 divisions is keyed 

to the spindle just back of the drive. What is the purpose 
of this plate? 

19. How may the worm be disengaged from the worm wheel? When 

is this necessar\'? WTiy? 

20. Before disengaging the worm why is it necessar}' to take out 

the stop-pin? 

21. What advantage has direct indexing? WTiy are there 24 holes 

in the direct index plate? How are these holes numbered? 

22. Rearrange the di\idiQg head for simple indexing. How do you 

know when the worm properly engages the worm wheel? 

23. How is the center removed from the dividing head spindle? 

WTiat standard taper has the spindle hole? 

24. Why is a cap screwed on the nose of the spindle when the center 

is being used? How is a chuck mounted on the spindle? 

25. WTiat plate is needed in order to set the dividing head at any 

other angle than parallel with the table? How do you set this 
plate square? How do you set it at any other angle? 

Reference has already been made to the third problem in 
the educational process, namely, How shall the efficiency of 
instruction be measured? Given a certain training process, 
how can we be sure that the ideas or skill which it was devised 
to impart are "getting over''? The application of the perform- 
ance test idea to the job sheet method of instruction makes this 
question comparatively simple. WTiether the man has fulffiled 



ADAPTATION TO TRAINING 407 

the requirements of the job sheet will readily be determined by 
the consideration of two of the essential elements of the job 
sheet itself. 

In the first place, can the learner, as a result of performing 
the process, answer the various questions which are included in 
the job sheet? Secondly, does the product exhibit those stand- 
ard qualities which are the necessary resultant of the correct 
performance of the job? If the learner can answer a -prede- 
termined proportion of the questions, if the product that he 
has turned out, when rated by standard methods, scores a reason- 
able percentage of the maximum, then, and not until then, will 
this particular stage in the process of learning be passed. The 
accomplishment of the job, with a reasonable degree of success, 
success being defined in purely objective terms, is the signal 
for advancement to the operation next in sequence. The job 
sheet, if properly constructed, will decide the three questions: 

1. What shall be taught? 

2. How shall it be taught? 

3. Has the learning process taken place? 

It is impossible here to go into further detail as to the exact 
construction and methods of use of these job sheets, which 
would form the basis of instruction. The exact function which 
the teacher would perform would vary with the nature of the 
operation and the ability of the learner. The extent to which 
the theoretical information should be introduced in the form 
of questions would also have to be determined with great care. 
Each element would be introduced in connection with that 
process with which it had the most intimate relation. One of 
the discoveries which is made as soon as this device of teaching 
is adopted is that the old distinction between what is practical 
and what is theoretical tends to disappear. Precisely the same 
element of information may be theoretical if given at one time 



408 TRADE TESTS 

and essentially practical if given at another. One of the great 
advantages which will be reaped from the use of the job sheet 
method will be the scientific determination of the exact point 
at which each element can be most advantageously introduced 

in the solving of the practical problems outlined in the sheet. 

The general directions which will be given to the learner 
before coramencing work on any job sheet series will cover such 
points as the object of the method; it will be pointed out that 
its aim is to draw attention to the fundamental principles and 
important features by actually doing the job. The instructions 
for using the job sheets will be of the simplest order; the learner 
\\t11 simply be told to solve the problems as they arise; only 
when the workman is absolutely brought to a standstill vnH he 
consult the instructor. The questions themselves and the 
nature of the job will determine what has to be done and the 
order in which it shall be done. Constant reference must be 
made to the questions, for the purpose of these is to insure the 
observation of the important details. The workman will be in- 
formed that these tasks have been chosen and arranged in a 
certain order, and that success in the operations involved in 
the later sheets will be strictly dependent on the manner in 
which the underlying principles of the preceding jobs have 
been thoroughly mastered. While most of the questions will 
be such as can be answered directly from obsen'ations of the 
process and trial and error in the use of tools and machine, a 
few of the questions demand further outside trade information. 
This can be obtained from either text books or handbooks, 
placed in the shop library, which the learner ^iU be encouraged 
to consult. Others may be answered by discussion with fellow- 
students vrho are also learning the trade. Only in the last 
resort shall appeal be made to the instructor. Even then, it 
shall be the business of the instructor, if the information can 



ADAPTATION TO TRAINING 409 

be procured in reasonable time, to refer the learner to the correct 
sources. The sterling virtue of this method of instruction lies 
in the extent to which it places the responsibility in all the 
various stages upon the student himself. From the very first 
job sheet the student will know that he is responsible for per- 
forming the operation; that the answering of every question 
depends on his own exertion; that only when all other methods 
have failed will he be given direct information. Lastly, he will 
know that at the end of the process he will be held to a strict 
account in which there can be no shuffling and no bluffing. If 
he is unable to furnish intelligent answers to a reasonable pro- 
portion of the questions, if the final product does not show the 
necessary standardized qualities, he will not be allowed to pass 
on to the next operation. Shoddy work will mean, in the first 
place, a reduction of the speed of the learning process, and in the 
last analysis, rejection. In this way, within each important 
occupation for which the industry gives specialized instruction, 
there will be created a series of hurdles which become increas- 
ingly difficult as time advances. These hurdles will automati- 
cally create a barrier to the student who cannot benefit by the 
instructions, but to those who can negotiate them the hurdle 
itself will furnish both the exercise and the check. The speed 
with which these hurdles can be passed depends wholly upon 
the learning abihty of the pupil. It may reasonably be expected 
that the best will be advanced at from five to ten times the 
rate which the slowest will attain. Just as the performance 
test is a standardized, scientifically constructed examining de- 
vice, so the job sheet will be a standardized/ scientifically con- 
structed training device. 

Up to this point the general implication has been that the 
training device above described is to be used merely for the 
breaking in of new employees. This of course is only one of 



410 TRADE TESTS 

the functions. It will also be used with great effectiveness in 
the case of employees, who for some reason — either the trans- 
fer from one department to another, or promotion within the 
same department to more dilhcult work — need specialized train- 
ing. Herein will he one of the great merits of the job sheet 
method in which the scheme of instruction is in well-dehned and 
separated units. Where an unskilled hand is recei\lng training 
he will pass through the whole series of training units, but 
where a man. already partly skilled, is recei\TQg further training, 
he will merely pass through those units which are new to him. 
and which are contributory to the hnal trade ability required. 

It is a platitude to say that the essence of the problem of 
placement is to know^ just what knowledge and skill is in the 
possession of each employee. The above scheme presents a 
method of determining and recording this information in a 
very precise manner. The training record of aU employees 
within the plant wiU furnish a permanent register, which, to- 
gether with information in other Lines, wiU form the basis of 
promotion or transfer from one operation to another. In the 
case of new employees, very sKght modihcations of the job 
sheet wiU convert them into what are essentially oral and per- 
formance tests. When these sheets are arranged in a more or 
less definite order of ascending difficulty, it \^t11 be possible to 
assign the man on the basis of the general inter^-iew to that test- 
ing job which is about his level of attainment. There vnll be 
no need in many cases to cover the preceding sheets, and even 
if doubt exists, a few weU-directed oral questions wiH give the 
necessary information. 

Another important contribution which will be made by this 
system T^-ill result from its usefulness in determining points of 
weakness in the trade ability of a particular man. . One of the 
great merits of the British system of Trade Tests lay in the 



ADAPTATION TO TRAINING 411 

fact that the testing device also gave very valuable information 
with regard to the elements in which further instruction was 
needed. Their administration being centralized, it was possible 
to have the tests much longer and more elaborate than those 
found in our own army camps. The examiners were trade 
experts who knew exactly the army requirements in skill. By 
watching the recruit perform a long series of processes, they 
were able to make a detailed analytic measurement of the trade 
ability of each candidate. Thus they knew that a particular 
recruit was strong in certain directions and very weak in^ others. 
Consequently he could be transferred to training schools where 
the necessary instructions could be given along just those lines 
in which the candidate had shown weakness during the exami- 
nation. The devices of standardized examinations and stand- 
ardized performances above described will accom^plish this 
same purpose. They will also have the great advantage, which 
the British system lacked, of furnishing standardized ratings 
of the ability of the workman. 

What has been said must not be interpreted to mean that 
the instruction centering around the job sheets will always take 
place in the school laboratory rather than in the actual produc- 
ing shops of the plant. Whenever possible the job sheets should 
be constructed from operations chosen because they are actually 
contributory to the production of a common product. This 
close connection between the learning process and production 
gives a zest and significance to the former which exerts a most 
beneficial effect on the student. There is, however, a very 
marked dift'erence between the state of affairs when carefully 
chosen jobs within the industry are used as methods of instruc- 
tion and the old type of haphazard instruction commonly found 
in the shops. The differences in the two methods are found in 
(i) the nature of the problem selected for learning purposes, 



41^2 TRADE TESTS 

(2) the manner in which the student is allowed to solve the 
problem for himself, (3) the absence of meaningless routine and 
drudgery. In a shop working under production conditions, 
where these three points can receive adequate attention, instruc- 
tion may weU be given, but where the conditions of production 
do not admit of such attention, the special school shop should 
be the place of learning. 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE INSTALLATION OF TRADE TESTS 

The precise manner in which the training and selection func- 
tion will be performed cannot be described in any detail. The 
essential factor for success of any method or device depends on 
the extent to which it is incorporated into, and articulated with, 
the various other devices for personnel placement. No idea 
such as that of the trade tests can be worked out and reduced 
to a standardized form, which can be apphed directly to all 
industries. Generally speaking, the author is extremely skep- 
tical of methods that are introduced from the outside by con- 
sultants. Nearly always this results in the plants being saddled 
with numerous appliances which are not adapted to their 
specific needs. The consultant or efhciency expert creates a 
device to meet a general need, which may in only the remotest 
way coincide with the particularized need of the specific indus- 
try. Methods such as have been described must be applied by 
men who have a first-hand knowledge of conditions, knowledge 
only found in those who are permanent members of the per- 
sonnel division. 

What then is the function of the consultant or expert? From 
a wide acquaintance with the application of these methods in 
large numbers of industries it may be supposed that the con- 
sultant will have a wider point of view, and will be more able 
to diagnose roughly the general needs of the plant. Having 
determined whether these methods can be successfully apphed, 
it is the business of the consultant to train individual members 
of the personnel force in the methods of test construction and 
administration. That is, the work of the expert will be that of 

413 



414 TRADE TESTS 

training in personnel methods, and not that of instaUing certain 
devices. If the latter procedure is allowed, the firm will never 
free itself from the necessity of constant reference to the original 
consultant. Whenever the actual device installed has to be 
modified to meet new conditions, the outside services will be 
needed. While this, of course, is very profitable to the consul- 
tant, and to a certain extent is his salvation, it is very expensive, 
and even wasteful, for the firm. It is much more advantageous 
to have a single personnel member of the organization trained 
under careful supervision of those famihar with trade test 
ideas, than to have a thousand and one personnel devices of 
w^hich the underlying principles are not clearly understood. 
One of the objects of this presentation of the trade test ideas 
is to give an intelligent employment speciaKst the fundamental 
principles and the necessary information so that he may be 
enabled, without undue wasteful experimentation, to install 
his own methods. The construction of oral tests, picture tests 
and performance tests, is a matter of trial and error; provided 
the individual starts with a few basic ideas, it does not take 
long to acquire the skill and technique of construction. With 
the person w^ho has, by one method or another, acquired a 
knowledge of trade test methods there wiU be associated a 
group of men, the number of which varies wdth the size of the 
plant. This experimental group will be responsible for: 

(i) Deciding as to the advisability of the trade test method 
in the various occupations. 

(2) Deciding with regard to the tyipe of test used. 

(3) Construction of the tests. 

(4) Keeping the tests up to date. 

(5) AppHcation of the trade test methods to the problems 
of training and transfer. 

(6) General supervision of the administration of the tests. 



INSTALLATION OF TRADE TESTS 415 

In the larger industries it will be a matter of considerable 
economy to separate the research group that constructs the test 
and advises with regard to their apphcation from the larger 
group, consisting chiefly of clerical workers, who administer the 
tests. The research group should be responsible for seeing that 
the general methods of administration are followed in order to 
reap the full benefits of the testing method, but in so far as 
their work is highly speciahzed, they should not be held re- 
sponsible for the routine of hiring within the employment ofhce, 
or for the routine of teaching in the shop or school. It is of 
course necessary that they should keep in the closest touch 
with the employment ofhce and the school, in order to test the 
general efficiency and workability of the methods they devise, 
but the routine work should be handled by the lower paid group. 

With the introduction of oral trade tests into the employment 
office, certain alterations of the office arrangement, while not 
absolutely necessary, will contribute greatly to their success. 
The fact that an oral test is given makes it highly desirable 
that the conditions of an individual examination be established. 
This can usually be accomplished by a different system of rout- 
ing, or by constructing small booths or office partitions at ^con- 
venient places. The army in its interview work, when a trade 
examination was necessary, used partitions, such as those shown 
in the illustration. Where the existing arrangements cannot 
be altered, the oral tests can be given with reasonable success 
provided one apphcant is called up at a time. The common 
practice of allowing all that takes place between the interviewer 
and the apphcant to be heard by a number of men, who in many 
cases are pushing and shoving for the next hearing, is exceed- 
ingly bad. In a well-constructed employment office, sufficient 
order should prevail to enable at least a semi-private interview 
to be given. In the case of the performance test, naturally, 



4r 



TRADE TESTS 



somewhat elaborate facilities a: ^ r WTiether these 

facilities shall be placed in the cniT^oxTnent omce itself, in the 
school, or in assigned places wirnin the shops themselves, is a 
matter which can onlv be settied bv a consideration of the 




nature of the tests and the possibilities of the particular plant. 
The introduction of the trade tests will of course be gradual. 
At nrst only the more important occupations will be studied; 
only for those occupations where a good deal of selection is 
necessar\- will tests be de ised. The author would strongly 



INSTALLATION OF TRADE TESTS 417 

recommend that the first experimental work be done, wher- 
ever possible, with the oral question method. When this method, 
for any reason, is not apphcable, resort must be had to the 
picture or performance devices. In the interest of a rapid 
return for the effort expended in construction, and also for the 
purpose of estabhshing confidence in the tests, administered by 
interviewers who are not tradesmen, the oral tests should be 
the first in the field. 

A further purpose for which trade tests will eventually be 
employed, even in those industries where no formal instruction 
is given, will be to determine from time to time the manner in 
which the various employees are becoming acquainted with the 
general processes of the trade. It is probably true that for 
many years to come the old method of breaking in workers will 
be employed, where the applicants after a preliminary inter- 
view are sent into the shops and assigned odd jobs, assisting 
skilled workers in the various places in which they can be useful. 
Under these conditions the degree of benefit which is derived 
varies greatly from learner to learner. Let us consider two 
apphcants who, after the preliminary interview, pass into the 
same shop and both work on numerous routine jobs. At the 
end of a year, if the foreman is asked concerning the relative 
merits of these two employees, he might answer that both are 
equally useful, in his opinion, which may indeed be true as far 
as the work upon which they have been put enables the foreman 
to make a decision. As a matter of fact, one of the applicants 
is extremely interested in his trade. In his odd moments he 
has watched the other workmen in the shop, he has attended 
night classes, and he has read up on the processes of his trade. 
The other workman has conscientiously performed the tasks 
which he has been called upon to do, but his interest 'has not 
been suJSicient to make him acquire other information except 



418 TRADE TESTS 

that which was essential to his trade. While in the majority of 
such instances the foreman will discover such facts as have 
been mentioned, it is quite possible in the case of a large shop 
and a reticent employee for merit of this kind to pass unnoticed. 
In other cases, even when some workmen in the shop may know 
of this difference in attitude of the two employees, it may easily 
happen that such information is not known to those who control 
promotion and transfer. That this is not a purely hypothetical 
state of affairs, the following illustration will prove. In a large 
plant in the neighborhood of Pittsburg, priding itself on its per- 
sonnel work, the author was standardizing a set of questions for 
a certain type of machine trade. One of the apprentices when 
brought in for a try-out and given the questions, astounded the 
examiner by securing a score which was slightly better than 
that of the average expert in the trade. This rather disconcert- 
ing fact stimulated curiosity as to possible coaching, since this 
particular applicant was the fifth or sixth in order of examina- 
tion. Investigation, however, proved coaching out of the ques- 
tion. An experience of this kind naturally called for further 
inquiry, as the whole success of the army trade tests depends 
on such cases not arising unless there is a very adequate cause. 
The foreman was at once called in and interrogated with regard 
to this particular boy. The facts were that he had served an 
apprenticeship of a year and a half. In the opinion of the fore- 
man, his trade knowledge was on a par with the other appren- 
tices who were also given the examination. Nothing that had 
happened within the shop had caused either the foreman or 
the assistant foreman to single out this particular apprentice. 
The foreman being unable to give any light, the boy himself 
was recalled, and he was asked if, as far as he could tell, there 
was any reason why he knew more about the trade than the 
average apprentice of one and one-half years' standing. Then 



INSTALLATION OF TRADE TESTS 419 

the fact revealed itself that his father was a skilled machinist, 
having a small shop of his own in the neighborhood. The boy 
from the time that he went to school had been around the shop, 
helping his father and the other men. He had also been given 
definite instructions in an informal way, but his training had 
not been of that systematic kind which would enable him to 
claim journeyman ranking. His father, desiring him to work 
in a large shop, sent him to the plant where he applied for work 
as a helper, and not explicitly claiming any special skill he was 
placed in the ordinary routine fashion. It was not until the 
trade test was given, one and one-half years after his entry into 
the shop, that his real trade ability was known. The examiner 
left the plant and thought no more of the incident until three 
weeks later he was again in a different department of the same 
concern, and happened to run across the aforementioned fore- 
man, who at once made the significant remark: ''You know 
that boy that you picked out? We have already promoted him, 
raised his wages, and I intend to keep my eye on him, for he is 
the kind of workman I need." While this is undoubtedly an 
extreme example, there were several other cases in which the 
employer made very interesting discoveries with regard to dif- 
ferences between his workmen which he had never suspected. 
The application of trade test methods cannot help but reveal 
the extraordinary differences in the rate at which individuals 
learn when working under precisely the same conditions. The 
fact that from time to time the workman will be given a chance 
to show just exactly what he has learned, and that a record of 
this will be kept in the hands of those who control his promo- 
tion, will serve as an incentive of the highest order. 



CHAPTER XV 

SOME FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF TRADE 
TEST METHODS 

Ix addition to linding their place in the emplo}Tnent offices of 
large industrial plants, the trade tests ^^ill also hll a keenly 
felt want in general emplo}Tnent offices, whether private or 
pubHc. A very signfficant experiment with the oral tests was 
performed from December, 1918, to March, 1919. When the 
armistice was signed, and there was no longer need for the army 
tests to be used solely in the army, it was felt that the results 
should be appHed to other government offices where skilled 
workers were handled. The most obvious field for their opera- 
tion lay in the U. S. Emplo}Tnent Ser\dce, conducted as a part 
of the Department of Labor. Considering that at that time 
it was the intention to use the L^. S. Emplo\Tnent SerA'ice as 
one of the important agencies which was to reheve the pressure 
of demobilization, it was particularly incumbent upon the War 
Department to see that this SerAdce was given every facility. 
With this in \'iew a group of men was lent by the Army Trade 
Test Di\ision to the Labor Department. The function of this 
group was to adapt the army methods to the needs of the Em- 
plo}Tnent Sen.'ice. These needs were so essentially similar to 
those of the army, that it became immediately apparent, from 
a preliminary try-out in several cities, that the oral trade test 
could be used to good advantage. It was, however, felt that a 
complete trial, on a large scale, of the trade tests necessitated 
the creation of a special t}^e of emplo}Tnent office. 

At this particular time there was also a demand for enlarging 
the employment service in New York City. This fact enabled 

420 



APPLICATIONS OF METHODS 421 

a specialized employment ofBce to be created, which would 
handle only skilled labor. As no such office existed, it was 
necessary not only to procure the site, but also to devise an 
office plan and to gather the necessary personnel. There is no 
need to describe at any length its general plan. The lay-out of 
the office enabled each examiner to occupy a section; within 
this section there was the examiner's desk and the clerk's desk, 
and a number of chairs. There were in all five examiners, each 
examiner handling a group of trades. The applicant on entrance 
was given a rapid interview in order to discover the trade in 
which he claimed to have skill. When this was ascertained, he 
was then referred to that section where the trade was handled. 
Here the man was seated, and waited until he was called by the 
examiner for an interview at the desk. 

This interview was absolutely private. The men who were 
waiting were so placed that they could not hear the conversation. 
At this point the apphcant was given a form of trade test spe- 
cially adapted to the uses of the U. S. Employment Service. 
There was felt an urgent need for such a device to solve one of 
the great problems of the Employment Offices. The common 
criticism which was made of the system of reference used prior 
to this time was that the method of interviewing enabled a 
large number of trade bluffers to ''get by" and thus secure 
references to industrial plants. From the standpoint of the 
skilled mechanic the employment office must operate to bring 
the man into contact with the job; from the standpoint of the 
employer it must serve to furnish a likely group of men from 
which choice may be made, thereby minimizing the wearisome 
and wasteful task of personally investigating the quahfications 
of men who have not had the necessary training for the work. 
It was in the latter respect that the mechanism was breaking 
down. Many employers made the complain c that the men sent 



422 TRADE TESTS 

from the employment office had no skill in the trades in which 
they had claimed knowledge when interviewed in the employ- 
ment office. The lack of trade knowledge on the part of the 
interviewers was bound to create this situation. In order to 
obviate this situation, within this experimental office two 
methods of interview wxre worked out: 

1. The standardized trade inter\dew. 

2. The selective trade interview. 

The results which had been pre\'iousl}^ obtained by the Army 
Trade Test Division were used at once to construct the stand- 
ardized trade inter\^ew^ The factor of coaching and speed 
made it necessary to alter the form of examination; also the 
rigidity of the army scheme made it unsuitable for use in an 
employment office. The final form of standardized interview 
consisted of ten questions, the degree of difficulty of which was 
know^n. Any sLx of the questions w^ere to be asked, and the 
individual rated upon the basis of his score on these six ques- 
tions. The questions ^^dthin the test wxre so chosen that any 
six which were selected w^ould be of approximately the same 
degree of difficulty. Wliereas in the army four levels of abihty 
w^re recognized, in the Employment Ser\dce there seemed to 
be no useful purpose served by making the distinction between 
the journeyman and the expert. For this reason, only three 
levels w^ere used: 

1. The nontradesman. who was defined as a man with no 

trade experience. 

2. The helper, a man who has had experience in learning the 

trade, but not sufficient to make him a tradesman. 

3. Tradesman, a man w'ho has passed through the helper or 

apprentice stage, and is given full tradesman's rating. 
The examinations, though of a simpler order, and not so 
highly differential, were so essentially similar to the army 



APPLICATIONS OF METHODS 423 

trade tests, that there is no need to reproduce any of them. 
With extensive trial of this simpHhed standard test, it was dis- 
covered that the definite standards of achievement prescribed 
for novice, helper and tradesman made the use of this type of 
examination rather dangerous, unless examiners could be well 
supervised and trained in the methods of giving the oral tests 
which have already been detailed. The object of this experi- 
mental office was to devise a method which could be applied to 
all offices throughout the country. There is no doubt that 
within a specialized office the standardized test, with prescribed 
levels of achievement, is by far the most satisfactory. For 
general uses, however, in offices where it was impossible to 
control conditions, another type of interview was called for, 
which would be more flexible and, therefore, more adaptable 
to the needs of the general run of employment offices. 

To meet this need a device known as The Selective Trade 
Interview was constructed. The questions comprising a Selec- 
tive Interview were compiled in precisely the same manner as 
was described in the army procedure; the same degree of care 
was employed to see that they were typical questions and that 
the answers were complete. They were, however, not stand- 
ardized in any formal manner, they were merely administered 
to a sufficient number of tradesmen of different degrees of ability 
to ensure: (i) that they represented different degrees of diffi- 
culty, (2) that they were genuine trade questions. No standards 
of achievement were prescribed. The interview furnished the 
examiner with a series of questions carefully worded, with all 
possible answers which he could use, in any manner, to discover 
the suitability of the applicant for the position. The examiner 
merely judged by the ease and fluency of the workman whether 
he was a tradesman, helper, or novice. In general the examina- 
tion consisted of ten questions, any six of which might be used. 



424 TRADE TESTS 



PAPER HANGER 

TRADE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 

Ask at least six questions: more if necessan- to judge accurately 
the candidate's ability. Score only the results of the six questions 
you ask nrst. \'ary as much as possible your selection of the first 
six questions. 

1. Q. What do you call the paste or glue you put on a plastered 

wall before papering? 
A. Size sizing^ . 

2. Q. What other brush does a paper hanger use besides a pasting 

brush? 
A. Smoothing. 

3. Q. What do you call the musHn covering which is put on a board 

partition before sizing? 

A. Lining. 

4. Q. What kind of joint is generally used in hanging heavy oat- 

meal or embossed paper? 
A. Butt. 

5. Q. What do you call the waste edge which is cut off in making a 

butt-edge joint? 
A. Selvage trim\ 

6. Q. What do you put into sizing to kill the gloss when papering 

over a painted wall? 

A. Potash fsoda^ ''pearl ash) lash). 

7. Q. What do you call the joint where only one selvage edge is 

trimmed off? 
A. Lap (slap- work). 

8. Q. What do you call a joint where one edge and all but about 

i-inch of the other edge is trimmed off? 
A. Wire (^haii- stripe). 



APPLICATIONS OF METHODS 425 

9. Q. What do you call the space on the wall between he chair- 
rail and baseboard? 
A. Dado. 

10. Q. What is put into paste to make it stick better when you hang 
lincrusta or heavy paper? 
A. Molasses (turpentine), (venetian), (turps). 



426 TRADE TESTS 

GLAZIER 

TRADE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 

Ask at least six questions; more if necessary to judge accurately 
the candidate's ability. Score only the results of the sLx questions 
you ask first. Vary as much as possible your seleztion of the first 
six questions. 

1. Q. What liquid do you generally use on the drill point when 

drilling through glass? 
A. Turpentine (kerosene), (coal-oil). 

2. Q. What tool do you use to remove the sharp edge from glass? 
A. Roller. 

3. Q. What do you call the small triangular pieces of metal that 

hold-in the glass when puttying? 
A. Points. 

4. Q. What do you do to a wooden sash to make the putty stick in 

longer? 
A. Paint (prime), (oil). 

5. Q. What conmion kind of pu ty is there besides linseed-putty? 
A. White-lead. 

6. Q. What do you generally use to drive in points on a window 

which is in place? 
A. Chisel. 

7. Q. What do you call puttying the sash before putting in the 

glass? 
A. Bedding (back-puttying). 

8. Q. What do you call the narrow strips of wood used to hold 

plate-glass in? 
A. Beading (molding). 

9. Q. What is placed in skylight glass to make it fireproof? 

A. Wire. 

10. Q. What kind of glass, besides wired, is ussd in skylights? 
A. Ribbed. 



APPLICATIONS OF METHODS 427 

While this method is by no means as complete as the stand- 
ardized, calibrated form of examination, it has the great advan- 
tage that it can be used by any examiner even though he has 
not been trained in the technique of administering the oral tests. 
What is more, a series of adequate questions can be prepared 
very rapidly. This type of exam nation certainly serves to 
eliminate the man who is attempting to deceive and in nine 
cases out of ten enables the examiner, with the help of the 
general interview concerning nature of previous work, length of 
experience, etc., to decide whether the applicant is a helper or 
tradesman. It should, however, only be used when for any of 
the reasons above mentioned the other more accurate forms of 
calibrated tests are impractical. 

This experiment was such a success and resulted in so much 
more accuracy in the placement of men, that it was decided to 
extend these methods to a number of representative offices 
throughout the country. This work was already under way 
when the curtailment of the United States Employment Service, 
as a result of the lack of appropriation by Congress^ brought 
this interesting experiment to an end. The abandonment of 
the idea did not take place, however, before the trade test 
methods had demonstrated their efficiency and applicability to 
the problem of a large employment office, working under peace 
conditions. 

Trade test methods have also been effectively employed in 
examinations given for Civil Service positions. The conditions 
under which the Civil Service appointments are made make 
some form of objective rating extremely desirable. The exami- 
nations for a large number of positions must be conducted in 
various places by a single examiner. Absolute freedom from 
any suspicion of favoritism or ''pull" is a necessity. Slight 
adaptations of the trade test methods will provide a ready 



428 TRADE TESTS 

means for securing a type of examination which will meet these 
requirements. In fact at the present time the Civil Service 
Commission of Ohio is constructing examinations directly based 
upon trade test ideas. 

It is also true that in certain trades, even fairly large plants 
require only one or at the most two skilled tradesmen. Thus 
for example a single electrician or power-house man may be 
sufficient to meet the needs of that particular kind of work 
within the plant. When hiring for these jobs there is no chance 
for reference to a foreman, there is no chance of comparison 
with other types of workmen. Under these conditions this form 
of trade test, devised in plants where large numbers of such 
workmen are handled, would be of the greatest service in the 
correct selection of an applicant. 

A further fact of interest may be cited, as showing the ad- 
vantages which may be derived from even a limited use of trade 
tests. Supposing that in only a few of the more important trades 
it is feasible to construct trade tests for use in the employment 
office, the introduction of tests in these few trades will alter the 
attitude of men who are applying for openings in those trades 
for which no tests have been constructed. Practical experi- 
ence within a large employment office has definitely proved that 
knowledge on the part of the applicant that some form of trade 
interview may possibly be given is sufficient to eliminate the 
greater number of bluffers. The presence of a few good trade 
tests gives a tone to an office which is noticeably lacking under 
present conditions, where not only the employment officials but 
also the tradesmen themselves realize how slip-shod are the 
methods of judging trade skill. 

While it is true that these standardized methods of selecting 
personnel have passed, by one stride, out of the realms of theory, 
it would not be wise to make claims which at this time would 



APPLICATIONS OF METHODS 429 

appear extravagant. Industry is in a position to take advantage 
of the result of a huge experiment, but these benefits will be 
reaped more by continued experiment with the general methods, 
than by any immediate apphcation of present devices. The 
great contribution of the Army Trade Test Division is found in 
its rigid adherence, at every step, to the strictest scientific prin- 
ciples. It has shown that the principles of measurement, devised 
in other fields, can be applied with equal advantage to the field 
of selection and training in industry. A great step has been 
made, but progress will only be secured by following the leads 
which have been given. There is always danger that when new 
laboratory ideas are apphed, the desire for immediate results 
in the practical field will lead to an attempt to ehminate some 
of the less showy but absolutely necessary scientific steps upon 
which the success of the whole process is dependent. If industry 
wiU use the experimental method, the standardized methods 
which have been describ€d cannot fail; if, however, it hastily 
constructs measuring devices, without regard to the funda- 
mental foundation upon which such measurements depend, 
failure will be certain. It will not be true, as may be claimed, 
that the trade test is ''too theoretical," but that those who 
attempt to use it are ''too practical." 

There is, however, one goal towards which the ideas and 
methods of the trade test have at least pointed the way. The 
trade test as employed in the various camps of the army estab- 
lished uniform standards of achievement, standards of achieve- 
ment which did not vary with place, time, or examiner. If as a 
result of the further application of these methods, upon an 
infinitely wider scale, unchanging standards which will be nation- 
wide can be estabhshed, the results to be obtained from such 
standardization can hardly be overestimated. If within each 
trade and occupation there was a common language and a 



-430 TRADE TESTS 

common quaiititativ£ basis for measurement, a great advance 
could be made. The present chaos of trade standards created 
at will, by this union, or by that union, cannot long be tolerated. 
Trade standing must nnally be determined, not by number of 
years of training, but by the absolute amount of knowledge 
and skill possessed by the tradesman. Why should a learner be 
made to ser\'e a hve-year apprenticeship, when a six m^onths' 
course, scientihcally planned, and well administered, can pro- 
duce a better workman than five years of haphazard experi- 
ence? In the realms of physical measurement the necessity for 
never changing standards is accepted. Xo elaborate commer- 
cial or scientihc work could be done in the absence of the Bureau 
of Standards. Is it too much to expect that the appKcation of 
scientihc measurement in the field of human knowledge and 
human skill will demand the creation of a similar institution? 



SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. The Personnel System of the U. S. Army. PubHshed by War 

Department, Adjutant General's Office, Washington, D. C. 
(History and development of the army personnel system) 

2. Army Trade Tests. W. T. Bawden. Bureau of Education, In- 

dustrial Education Circular No. 4. April, 1919. 
(Report of Conference) 

3. Trade Specifications and Index of Professions and Trades in the 

Army. War Department Document No. 774, Government 
Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 

4. Description of Occupations. A series of bulletins published by 

the Bureau of Labor Statistics. U. S. Department of Labor. 
Washington, D. C. 

5. Personnel Management. J. J. Coss and L. Outhwaite. War 

Department, Washington, D. C. 

(Topical outline and bibliograph}^ of most phases of personnel work) 

6. Publications of the Committee on Education and Special Training. 

War Department, Washington, D. C. 
(Instruction Manuals) 

7. The Extension of Selective Tests to Industry. By B. Ruml. 

Annals of the American Academy of PoHtical and Social 
Sciences, Vol. 81, 191 9. 

(Short statement of trade test method) 

8. Measuring a Workman's Skill. W. V. Bingham. National 

Society for Vocational Education, Bulletin No. 30. 
(A short statement of the use of trade tests) 

9. A Written Trade Test. J. Crosby Chapman and H. A. Toops. 

(Multiple Choice Method) 
Journal of Apphed Psychology, Vol. Ill, No. 4, 1919. 
(An account of a written group form of examination) 
10. Trade Test Enters Industry. J. Crosby Chapman. Finance 
and Industry, Vol. XXXIX, No. 10. 
(A short statement of trade test method) 
431 



INDEX 



Ability, definition of, 12; sampling of, 
80 

Aids for interviewers, demerits of sys- 
tem, 51, 53; general directions, 35; 
tests reproduced: auto repairer, 38; 
bricklayer, 46; carpenter, 348; in- 
side -wireman, 50; machinist, general, 
36; motion picture operator, 40; 
sheetmetal worker, 48; surveyor, 42; 
tire repairer, 44 

Apprenticeship, period of, 56, 430 

Army requirements for testing devices, 
8 

Army requisitions, 6, 355 

Army trade names, caution, 61 

Attitude of tradesman, 175 

Basic human qualities, difficulty in 

measurement of, 368 
Bluffing, 6, 343, 427; in commerce, 33 
British trade test method, 264, 410 

Civil Service, trade tests in, 427 

Coaching, 333, 384; method of elimi- 
nation, 379; use of supplementary 
questions, 113 

Committee on Classification of Per- 
sonnel, 13 

Consultants, 413 

Differentiating power of test, 18; de- 
fined, 56; method of testing, 57, 59, 
97 

Differentiation in industry, 380 

Educational department, problems of, 
387 



Educational measurements, application 
to trade test, 17 

Efficiency expert, 413 

Employment office, 13; centralized, 
362; lack of skilled examiners, 32; 
methods of interview, 364; weak- 
nesses of, 421; use of clerical assist- 
ance, 15 

Examination, by experts, 7, 364 

Examiner, no trade knowledge needed 
by, 16, 30 

Follow up questions, 91 
Foreman, method of handling appli- 
cants, 13, 364 

Hiring out of town, 34 

Industrial methods, adaptation of, 16 
Industrial problem, similarity to army 

problem, 361 
Industry, achievements in, 380; cen- 
tralized employment office in, 364; 
existing methods in, 13; exploitation 
of, 368; installation of trade tests 
in, 413; place of tests in, 376 
Information, relation to skill, 23, 24 
Intelligence test, distinguished from 

trade test, 371 
Interview, aids for, 35; methods in 
industry, 7, 364; private interview 
necessary, 415 

Job analysis, 361, 367, 387; method of, 

369 
Job sheets, 389; advantages of method, 
409; directions for, 408; introduction 



433 



434 



INDEX 



Job sheets, continued — 

to, 397; samples reproduced — divid- 
ing head, 404; file, 398; forging cold 
chisel, 401; lathe, 402; use of, 410 

Labor turnover, 4, 363 
Language difficulty, 189, 262, 333 

Measuring instruments, skepticism with 

regard to, 11 
Motor-mindedness, 24 
Multi-answer questions, 29, 30, 52, 54 
Multi-choice method, 337 

Objective ratings, 9; of trade test, 19 
Objective scale, definition, 9; for school 

subjects, 17 
Occupations, in army, 7, 353, 355; 

specialized duties in army, 370 
Occupational analysis, method of, 367, 

369 

Occupational history, 358 

Occupational needs, tables of, 354, 356 

Occupational speciahsts, 354 

Oral question, assumption underlying, 
23; compilation of, 83, 87; faults of, 
86; elimination of, 93; key word, 94; 
nature of, 27; multi-answer vs. single 
answer, 29, 30, 52, 54; relation of in- 
formation to skill, 23; scoring of, 94; 
selection of, 31; standardized follow- 
up question for, 91; statistical treat- 
ment of, 96; testing of, 90, 92, 94; 
types of, 27, 99; what it measures, 24 

Oral trade test, alternative method of 
construction, 176; assembly of, 107; 
calibration of, 103; differentiating 
power of, 55; genesis of, 16; improve- 
ment in, 348; instructions for giving, 
166; scope of, 179; scoring of, 174; 
tests reproduced — acetylene cutter, 
163; automatic screw machine, 134; 
auto repairer, 72; brass melter, 131; 
bricklayer, 109; butcher, 144; cable- 
man, 125; cabinet maker, 69; car- 



penter, 350; compositor, 150; cook 
(selected questions), 181; cupola 
tender, 128; die-sinker, 138; drop- 
forger, 141; electrician, D.C., 122; 
hammersmith, 66; ironworker erec- 
tor, 119; painter, 63; pipe-fitter (low 
pressure), 112; plumber, 116; radio 
operator, 159; surveyor, 53; tailor, 
156; telephone repairer, 76; type- 
writer repairer, 147; use of, 376 

Performance trade test, administering, 
279; advantages of, 261; advan- 
tages for foreigners, 262; calibration 
of, 276; construction of, 272; de- 
mands of, 260; divisions of, 278; 
drawbacks of, in industry, 383 ; equip- 
ment for, 280; feasibility of, 272; 
final formulation of, 272; final test- 
ing of, 276; genesis of, 13; instruc- 
tions to candidate, 280; instructions 
to examiner, 278; kinds of, 265; 
meaning of, 259; picture of, 270; 
place of, 268; practicahty of, 384; 
preliminary testing of, 274; relation 
to industrial method, 259; scoring, 
281; selection of, 268; specifications 
of, 278; stages of, 272; standardized 
vs. unstandardized, 382; tests repro- 
duced: — bench-hand, 301; black- 
smith, 312; interior wireman, 295; 
lathe operator, 308; pattern-maker, 
282; sheet-metal worker, 292; steam- 
fitter, 288; stenographer, 322; truck- 
driver, 325; typist, 319; use of, 382; 
weighting, 277 

Personnel, army problem, 5; organiza- 
tion in industry, 414; research vs. 
administrative groups, 415; specifi- 
cations, 354, 356 

Picture trade test, advantages of, 188, 
193; construction of, 190, 192; diffi- 
culties of, 191; instructions for, 192; 
method, 183; reasons for, 183; prac- 
ticality of, 187; scoring of, 193; 



INDEX 



435 



source of, 189; tests reproduced: 
battery expert, 212; boilermaker, 
236; carpenter, 198; cobbler, 243; 
gas welder, 249; generator tender, 
203; horse-shoer, 228; lathe opera- 
tor, 220; use of, 376 
Progress of employee, measurement of, 
417 

Qualification card, 360 

Questions, avoiding theoretical, 191; 

compilation of, 87; formal, 15; single 

answer, 29, 30, 52, 54; specialized vs. 

non-specialized, 377; supplementary, 

379 

Ratings, in army, 56; lack of stand- 
ardized, 7; subjective, 9 

Sampling of ability, random, 80 

Scientific method, 27, 429 

Scoring, 60 

Selective trade interview, 423; inter- 
views reproduced : paper-hanger, 424; 
glazier, 426; single-answer question, 

29, 30, 52, 54 
Skill prediction test, distinguished from 

trade test, 372 
Skill, relation to information, 23, 24 
Skilled tradesman, disadvantages of 
use as interviewer, 14; present 
method of securing information con- 
cerning, 13 

Toops, 338 

Trade ability, definition of, 12; grada- 
tions in, 84; mistake in estimating, 
6; need for more exact knowledge of, 
3, 4; sampling of, 263 
Trade, change in, 362; definition of, 11 
Trade information, compilation of, 273 
Trade interview methods, 422 



Trade names in army, 61 

Trade qualification record, 6, 360 

Tradesman, attitude of, 175; motor- 
minded, 24 

Trade specifications, 356, 357 

Trade status, 93, 422; definition of, 56; 
interpretation of, 374 

Trade test, criteria, 18; decision from, 
10; definition of, 8; installation of, 
413, 417; method in U. S. Employ- 
ment Service, 420; not an intelli- 
gence test, 371; not for skill predic- 
tion, 372; place in general employ- 
ment scheme, 353; speciaHzed vs. 
non- specialized questions, 377; use 
of, 374, 426, 347, 376, 428; selection 
of men for, 93; standardization of, 
58; stages in construction of, 83; 
types of, 19 

Training of employees, 386; formal vs. 
informal training, 387; haphazard 
instruction, 394; job sheets listed, 
389; measurements of results, 407; 
oral test appHed, 388; performance 
method applied, 394; plan for, 388; 
rate of, 417; trade test methods 
apphed, 386; technical, 26; weakness 
of present methods, 392 

U. S. Employment Ser\dce, 420, 427; 
experimental office of, 420; forms of 
interview in office of, 422 

War Department, Committee on Edu- 
cation and Special Training, 389 

Written group trade test, advantages 
of; 337; assembly of, 338; differen- 
tiation by, 343; graphs in, 342; 
method of, 337; test reproduced: — 
bricklayer, 338; results of, 341; 
scores in, 341 ; subjects in, 340 



14^ 



















^o iP "Jl 






,^q 



;<v -I 



^^-^^^ 






)^ .!.•*•- 



^^ '•'^" <^^ 



■<5#. ♦.- 










•» O 



*Ao« 



r. 

























V' .^J 









r '^^, 







^ ^>. * 









• '•*v^^•' . 


















<^. ♦•-« 



♦i:^%/^<^ ^0^ •iv- 



V^^-^^.y 




^^ 



9a. *•• 



A"' 






ft 



■^^ °'W«^** /% -.llK-- /\ --OT^** ^^'""^^ -.1 



\' .J?^*. 






* «0* 















♦* .^j'^'V. •.■' 



;* .^ •** '.^ 






^*'y* '*v^^^*'.o'5^ \**^^*'y* '*v^?^',o'' 





















-ov*^ r 


















' «^' nt '•••' a" ^^ •" x*^ <?*. 



\ 



WERT 

bookbinoim: 

Ci-antville, Pi, 

Marc*- ■ Ac"' 198? 












<?». ♦^T^* .c« 



5-^ 



^ •'o.T* .A. 



-A ♦, 



Mm 



?i 



